ABSTRACT
Air quality continues to be among the top
environmental concerns in Nigeria. In nigeria, where majority of the rural population uses charcoal, very
little is known about the impacts of the life-cycle of the fuel on the
livelihoods of the producers, who endure significant health, safety, and
environmental risks for marginal gain in a highly lucrative industry.
Population increases and deviations from the energy ladder model suggest that
charcoal demand for heating and cooking in Sub-Saharan Africa will continue to
increase through the year 2030 and beyond. Charcoal production industry can use
an air monitoring program to assist in addressing its environmental
responsibilities, and its responsibility as a local community member. Industry
performance monitoring enables industrial plant to be managed in an
environmentally sustainable manner .
A survey of air quality
in a charoal production site Amukpe
sapele and environs in the Niger delta
area of Nigeria revealed that air quality in the area is affected to varying
degrees by industrial activities in the production site.
This report covers a brief background of the
study, state of the problems, aims and
objectives of the work done, the scope of the research and also the relevance of work done with
regards to the analysis of emissions produced by a charcoal production facility
located in amukpe sapele delta state. An
accredited environmentalist was involved as a third party. Consulting an
independent third party to perform the measurements give more credible results and provide unavailable equipment
required for the analysis.
The
aim and purpose of the project is the evaluate the concentration of particulate
matter and gaseous pollutants present within a 2km radius of the charcoal
production facility. The significance of
this experiment is to detect if air in
the surrounding environment is polluted with emitted gase from the production
site, which can be detrimental to human
health. A survey of air quality in amukpe
sapele and environs in the Niger delta area of Nigeria revealed that air
quality in the area is affected to varying degrees by industrial, human and
natural activities.
The
discussed results indicate that a local charcoal production facility can be sustainable
and without a significant environmental impact in sense of its emissions. However
some deeper environmental performance evaluation could take place with the availability
of measurement equipment with a wider measurement range, higher precision and
more suitable for measurements in a charcoal factory. Also, the results
indicates large amounts of concentration of pollutants within the immediate
environment of the immediate environment. It is recommended that charcoal
producers in amukpe sapele waer appropriate PPE’s and follow WHO guidelines and
recommendations to control and reduce emissions.
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT
1.5 SCOPE OF RESEARCH
1.5.1 Analysis of Emissions And Controls
1.5.2 CHARCOAL AT A GLANCE
CHAPTER 2
2.0 LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 Charcoal
Production Process Description
2.2 CHARCOAL PRODUCTION CYCLE
2.3 EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN CHARCOAL PRODUCTION
2.4 EVALUATION OF AIR QUALITY PARAMETRES INVOLVED
IN THE CHARCCOAL PRODUCTION PROCESS
2.5 CHARCOAL
PRODUCTION AND THE GREENHOUSE GAS
REDUCTION
2.6 EVALUATION OF AIR QUALITY PARAMETRES
2.6.1 SULPHUR
OXIDES
2.6.2 NITROGEN
OXIDES
2.6.3 CARBON OXIDES
2.6.3.1 Carbon Monoxide
2.6.4 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
2.6.4.1 Methane
2.6.4.2 Non-Methane Hydrocarbons (NMHCs)
2.6.5 SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE MATfER
CHAPTER 3
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 CHARCOAL PRODUCTION IN AMUKPKE, SAPELE.
3.1.1 Background of the Study Area
3.2 Emission Monitoring
3.3 Methods Used in the Monitoring of particulate and gaseous pollutants
3.4 Preliminary
site inspection
3.5 Equipment and Supplies
3.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL
CHAPTER 4
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES, WIND SPEED AND
DIRECTION
4.2 AIR QUALITY PARAMETERS
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 WHO RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Charcoal is a woodfuel produced in rural
areas and consumed in cities and towns. Some of the factors influencing the
choice of using charcoal instead of firewood in urban areas include: Charcoal
has a higher calorific value per unit weight that firewood, it is therefore
moree conomic to transport charcoal over longer distances as compared to
firewood; Storage of charcoal takes less room as compared to firewood; Charcoal
is not liable to deterioration by insects and fungi which attack firewood;
Charcoal is almost smokeless and sulphur – free, as such it is ideal fuel for
towns and cities. It is estimated that approximately 1.5 billion people in
developing countries derive at least 90% of their energy requirements from wood
and charcoal. Another one billion people meet at least 50% of their energy
needs this way. In most developing countries, 90% of the people depend on
fuelwood as their chief source of fuel and each year the average user burns
anywhere from a fifth of a ton, in extremely poor, wood short areas such as
India, to well over a ton in parts of Africa and South Asia (GFC, undated). In
1999, it was estimated that 1.9 billion m³ of wood was burned for cooking, to provide
heat or to manufacture charcoal for later burning (FAO, 1999).
Large-scale charcoal
production, primarily in sub Saharan Africa, has been a
growing concern due to its threat of deforestation, land
degradation and climate change impacts. It is cited as the most environmentally
devastating phase of this traditional energy supply chain, and despite
increasing per capita income, higher electrification rates, and significant
renewable energy potential, charcoal still remains the dominant source of
cooking and heating energy for eighty percent of households in Sub Saharan Africa
(SSA) (Arnold et al, 2006; Zulu and Richardson, 2013). As a traditional fuel
that has been used for hundreds of years, it serves as a lifeline for the
rapidly increasing populations in the urban centers of the region, in addition
to potentially significant portions of the rural population. Due to its low
cost compared to other fuels like kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas, as well
as other factors that will be discussed in the coming sections, the demand for
charcoal is expected to continue rising dramatically in the coming decades,
despite best efforts by modern energy advocates. Charcoal use in SSA is
predicted to double by 2030, with over 700 million Africans relying on it as a
durable, preferred, and cheap source of energy. With a forecasted increase in
consumption, there is a great need to identify real versus perceived energy futures
with respect to charcoal. Research has shown that large-scale transitions to modern
energy sources will only occur once a certain income threshold is met, while other
studies have indicated that even with large increases in earned income, the
large majority of many SSA countries continue to utilize charcoal. If a
continued reliance on charcoal is suggested, there is an even greater need to
evaluate and address the
environmental and social issues associated with this highly
influential, and largely
informal,
industry.
Air pollution is the introduction of
chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or
discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural
environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. It can be defined as the
presence in the outdoor or indoor atmosphere of one or more gaseous or
particulate contaminants in quantities, characteristics and of duration such as
to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property, or which
unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property
(Odigure, 1998). It has been difficult to achieve cooperation for air pollution
control in developing countries like Nigeria, whose chief concern is to provide
such basic need as food, shelter and employment for her populace.
A substance in the air that can cause harm to
humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant. Pollutants can be in
the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be
natural or man-made (Anderson, 2005). The atmosphere is a complex dynamic
natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric
ozone depletion due to air pollution has
long
been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's
ecosystems. Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the
world's worst pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst
Polluted Places report (Anderson, 2005).
1.2 STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM
The pollutants emitted from a charcoal production site have the ability
to cause adverse health affects such as respiratory diseases. The charcoal producers in this region are not well
enlightened and do not consider the the dangers these emissions possess if the
enter the environment in significant levels. Hence, they would not be able tackle the problem of air pollution and green house gas emissions
produced by the pryolysis of charcoal. Worryingly, the government through the medium of environmental
protection agencies do not pay much attention to these process produces considerable amounts
of green house gases and suspended particle matter which are discharged into natural
receptors, (majorly air)
leading to major environmental problems in the
long run.
A review of the literature surrounding charcoal supply chains in
Sub-Saharan
Africa paints a clear picture that the demand for this energy
source will not remain
stagnant, but will increase dramatically through the year 2030 .
Even in countries where electrification rates are at their highest, as in Ghana, 60-70% of the population still use charcoal
for cooking and heating , a finding identified in numerous studies that
deviates from the traditional energy ladder model. Electricity rarely replaces charcoal
as a fuel, though increases in income lead to higher usage of more refined
fuels, like kerosene and LPG, to replace biomass; this helps to illustrate the
negative, and often misleading, correlation found between charcoal and
electrification. In some of the least developed countries, like Liberia, where
less than one percent of the population is connected to grid electricity, 95%
rely on traditional biomass fuels in the form of wood and charcoal. In the
growing rural areas, charcoal is the primary fuel used for heating and cooking,
as poor infrastructure, high cost, and low-income levels limit market growth
for refined cooking fuels.
Health-related impacts associated with woodfuels have
traditionally focused on
effects from their consumption. Indoor air pollution (IAP) is
the primary concern given the high concentrations of smoke and particulate
matter released during woodfuel combustion. Smith et al (2002) documented
trends in respiratory illness among disproportionate numbers of women and
children as a result of IAP from woodfuel combustion throughout the developing
world. However, little is known about the nhealth impacts endured by charcoal
producers during extraction and production phases. For example, it is known
that pyrolysis, the process utilized for the production of charcoal, releases
significant amounts of gaseous by-products, including carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide and others known to be deadly to
humans in moderate concentrations through the use of dose-response studies. Rural producers are known to work within close
proximity to high temperature kilns that off-gas these highly toxic compounds,
generating potential high risk for poisoning. In addition, use of primitive tools
can potentially lead to moderate or severe injuries, which can prove fatal in
rural areas that lack access to adequate medical care. Academic literature and
government reports refer to the working conditions of charcoal producers as
unsafe; government officials and research papers alike mention these ‘hazards’
in passing.
Additional indicators
of social threats include widespread child labor, gender differences in
education and production outcomes, extreme price variability often at the hands
of merchants and the lack of potential for poverty alleviation in current
methods of production. The lack of regulation in the charcoal industry creates
the highest risk of
exploitation and safety hazards, yet no studies have
investigated in-depth the health and social risks associated with the
production of this highly demanded fuel.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of this study is to determine the presence
of air pollutants in
significant concentrations and its spatial distribution to its surrounding environment along a two kilometre radius and its effects on in one of it.
The specific objectives are to
1.
Determine the presence of air pollutants in gaseous emissions discharged from a charcoal production facility.
2.
Run ambient air
quality analysis to determine the spatial distribution of these air pollutants in the surrounding environment over a 2km radius.
3.
Compare results of the study to national and international standard such as the world health organisation and draw out conclusions.
4.
Suggest solutions to the problems of these air pollutants to the surroundings and give recommendations and control methods.
1.4
SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT
This study will help confirm the true distribution of air pollutants discharged from t
production of charcoal in the sampled community. The concentration, translocation and distribution of the specified air pollutants in relation to the distance will also be determined; this should
help complete a holistic pollution cycle analysis. Results of this research project should further serve as baseline studies
for further research work on charcoal
production in amukpe sapele and studies on the effects of the charcoal industry’s activities.
1.5
SCOPE OF RESEARCH
1.5.1 Analysis of Emissions And Controls
There are five types of products and
byproducts from charcoal production operations: charcoal, noncondensible gases
(carbon monoxide [CO], carbon dioxide [CO2],
methane, and ethane), pyroacids (primarily acetic acid and methanol), tars and
heavy oils, and water. With the exception of charcoal, all
of
these materials are emitted with the kiln exhaust. Product constituents and the
distribution of these constituents vary, depending on raw materials and carbonization
parameters. Organics and CO are naturally combusted to CO2 and water before
leaving the retort. Because the extent of this combustion varies from plant to
plant, emission levels are quite variable. ethanol, and polycyclic organic matter.
If uncombusted, tars may solidify to form SPM emissions, and pyroacids may form
aerosol emissions.
The charcoal briquetting/stacking process
is also a potential source of emissions. The crushing, screening, and handling
of the dry raw charcoal may produce PM and PM-10 emissions. Briquette pressing
and drying may be a source of VOC emissions, depending on the type of binder
and other additives used. Continuous production of charcoal is more amenable to
emission control than batch production because emission composition and flow
rate are relatively constant. Emissions from continuous multiple earth charcoal
kilns generally are controlled with afterburners. Cyclones, which commonly are
used for product recovery, also reduce PM emissions from continuous kilns.
Afterburning is estimated to reduce emissions
of PM, CO, and VOC by at least 80 percent. Control of emissions from batch-type
charcoal kilns is difficult because the process and, consequently, the
emissions are cyclic. Throughout a cycle, both the emission composition and
flow rate change. Batch kilns do not typically have emission control devices,
but some may use after-burners. Particulate matter emissions from briquetting
operations can be controlled with a centrifugal collector (65 percent control)
or fabric filter (99 percent control).
1.5.2
CHARCOAL AT A GLANCE
Charcoal is produced in slow pyrolysis
carbonisation process. The charcoal yield being dependent on such process
parameters as the final temperature, the biomass particle size, the heating
rate and the reaction atmosphere (Elyounssi et al., 2012). Charcoal contain a
large number of pollutants and known health hazards: particulate matter (PM),
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide, sulfur oxides (mainly from coal),
formaldehyde, and polycyclic organic matter, including carcinogens such as benzo[a]pyrene
and benzene (5-8). Exposure to indoor air pollution from the combustion
of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a
causal agent of several diseases in developing countries, including acute
respiratory infection (ARI) and otitis media (middle ear infection), chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer (for coal smoke), asthma, nasopharyngeal
and laryngeal cancer, tuberculosis.
In amukpe sapele, charcoal is traditionally
made in small, simple batch-type kilns where the parameter management and control is very
limited. The charcoal production feed can be a
wide range of materials. Different types of biomass feed lead to the production
of different charcoal grades – basic grade biochar, premium
grade biochar and charcoal. The used biomass can be starting from biodegradable
waste from local waste collection services to hardwood (Schmidt et al., 2012).
The use of biodegradable waste for production of valuable materials and energy is
highly recommendable in order to reach the EU targets for minimization of the
share of landfilled biodegradable waste as well as to avoid resource scarcity
(Pubule et al., 2014). In the early 1940’s the most successful charcoal
production technologies were developed - the Lambiotte and SIFIC process. This
is a continuous carbonization process where the retort is filled continuously
with wood from the top, while downstream simultaneously carbonisation takes
place. The cooled charcoal is removed from the bottom. The process is energy
autonomous gaining the necessary heat from burning gases attained from
pyrolysis. The gases go through a condenser and afterwards are blown in the
bottom of the retort where it cools the fresh charcoal while preheating the gases
(Vertes et al., 2010). This technology has much higher process control and it
offers the possibility of producing charcoal more efficiently and with higher
increased yields then the traditional batch methods. This leads to the conclusion
that with an increased interest of charcoal production this kind of technologies
have to be evaluated form the environmental performance aspects.
The drying of the firewood is crucial
for proper functioning of the retort torch, where the excess pyrolysis gases are
burnt before emitting to the atmosphere.
The fresh wood is received with around 55%
moisture content, while the technological process requires the moisture content
of the input fuel to be below 25%. The
drying takes place in four chamber dryers heated with wood-fuelled water
boilers. The retort is operated under experimental conditions in order to carry
out the relevant
measurements that describe the production facilities’ environmental
performance regarding the emissions. The discovered results can be used to
evaluate whether there is place for charcoal production in an economically
developed country where the environmental performance is of high importance, and
it is strictly regulated.
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