ABSTRACT
This study therefore was to evaluate the effects of microbes on used and unused textile materials. From this study a total of nine bacterial and three fungal species were isolated from used and non-used textile materials. These microbial species were isolated using spread plate technique and they were identified using morphological characteristics, pigmentation on media, microscopy and biochemical methods which reveals the major bacteria and fungi isolates to be Escherichia coli, Staphylococci aurues, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas species, Enterococcus species, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium oxysporum. The microbial counts shows that mineral (asbestos) had the highest microbial load at 8.5x109 followed by synthetic (rugs) at 5.1x109 while the least was recorded on brazillian wool and polyesters at 2.2x109 each. The microbial counts from the unused textile material shows that plant (cotton) had the highest microbial load at 8.1x109 followed by brazillian wool at 4.0x109 while the least was recorded on polyesters at 1.2x109 each. The fungi counts from both samples shows that used textile material had high count compared to unused textile materials. The statistical analysis using T-test statistical package showed that there was significant difference between the various mean counts from both samples at (P< 0.05). It was also recorded in this study that the most widely distributed and abundant colony forming unit are Escherichia coli and Aspergillus flavus.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of contents vi
Lists of Table viii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER
ONE
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Uses of Textiles 1
1.3 Types of
Textiles
2
1.3.1 Animal
Textiles 3
1.3.2 Plant
Textiles 4
1.3.3 Mineral
Textile 4
1.3.4 Synthetic
Textiles 5
1.4 Where
are Textiles Manufactured in Nigeria? 6
1.5 How the
Use of Textiles Began. 6
1.6 Ways
to Improve the Textiles Industry to Avoid the Growth of Microorganism. 8
1.7 Factors
to Consider when choosing Textiles for Clothing. 9
1.8 Effects
of Sun and Rain on Textiles 9
1.9 Aim and
Objective
10
1.9.1
Objectives 10
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Literature Review 11
2.1.1 Textiles as a Carriers of Microorganism 11
2.2 Types
of Microbes that Attack Textile Materials 12
2.3 Susceptibility
of Textiles to Microorganisms
14
2.3.1 Different Types of Fibers have different Susceptibilities to
Microorganisms. 14
2.4 General
Effect of Microbes on Textiles Materials 15
2.5
Application of Antimicrobial
Treatments on Textiles 16
2.5.1 Low
Moisture Content and Application of Biocides in Textiles 16
2.5.2 Application
of Antimicrobials by Leaching Technology 17
2.5.3 Application
of Antimicrobials by Molecularly Bond Unconventional Technology 18
2.5.4 Adaptation
and Mutation of Antimicrobes by Microorganism
18
2.5.5 Natural
and safer way out so far for Textiles
19
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Materials
and Methods 20
3.2 Materials 20
3.2.1 Sample
Collection 20
3.2.2 Sterilization 20
3.3 Methods
20
3.3.1 Isolation of Bacteria from used and used
Textiles 20
3.3.2
Bacteriological Analysis
21
3.3.3 Fungal
Isolation and Identification
21
3.4 Phenotypic
Characteristics of Bacterial Isolates
21
3.4.1 Gram
Staining 21
3.5
Biochemical Test 22
3.5.1 Catalase 22
3.5.2 Methyl Red (MR) Test 22
3.5.3 Coagulase Test 22
3.5.4 Voges- Proskauer (VP) Test 23
3.5.5 Indole Test 23
3.5.6 Citrate Utilization Test 24
3.5.7 Motility Test 24
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1
Results 25
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1
Discussion
31
5.2 Conclusion 32
5.3 Recommendation
32
REFERENCES
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
LIST OF TABLES
|
S/N
|
TITLE
|
PAGE NO
|
|
1
|
Total mean
of microbial count Cfu/ml of used and unused textiles material sample
|
27
|
|
2
|
Identification
and characterization of bacteria isolates from used and unused textiles
material sample.
|
23
|
|
3
|
Identification
and characterization of fungi isolates from used and unused textiles material
sample
|
24
|
|
4
|
Distribution
of bacteria and fungi isolates from used and unused textiles material sample.
|
25
|
|
5
|
Percentage
occurrence of fungi isolates from used and unused textiles material sample.
|
26
|
CHAPTER ONE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Textile
is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres
(yarn
or thread), (Lazarov et al., 2004). Yarn is produced by
spinning raw
fibres of wool,
flax,
cotton,
hemp,
or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving,
knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The related words fabric and cloth
are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking)
as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms
in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres,
including carpeting and geotextile. A fabric is a material made through
weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in
production of further goods (garments, etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously
with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed (Cordoba et al., 2013)
1.2 USES
OF TEXTILES
Textiles
have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing
and for containers such as bags and baskets.
In the household they are used in carpeting,
upholstered furnishings, window
shades, towels,
coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art.
In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as
filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags,
backpacks,
tents,
nets, handkerchiefs,
cleaning rags,
transportation devices such as balloons,
kites,
sails,
and parachutes;
textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials
such as fibre glass and industrial geotextiles.
Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing,
quilting
and embroidery (Scheman
et al., 1998).
Textiles
for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their
appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles.
Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications,
medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments),
agrotextiles (textiles for crop
protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and
radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab
protection, and bullet
proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must
be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc
oxidenanowires,
laboratory fabric has been shown capable of "self-powering
nanosystems" using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or
body movements.
1.3 TYPES
OF TEXTILES
Textiles
are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool,
silk),
plant (cotton,
flax,
jute),
mineral (asbestos,
glass fibre),
and synthetic (nylon,
polyester,
acrylic). The first three
are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres
made from petroleum (Arai and Masanao,
2008). Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from
the finest microfibre made of strands thinner
than one denier to the sturdiest canvas.
Textile manufacturing
terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from
light gauze-like
gossamer to heavy grosgrain
cloth and beyond.
1.3.1
Animal Textiles
Animal
textiles are commonly made from hair,
fur,
skin
or silk
(in the silkworm’s case).Wool
refers to the hair of the domestic goat
or sheep,
which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual
strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is
coated with a wax
mixture known as lanolin
(sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirt proof (Trevisan et al., 2008; Adrian et al., 2009). Woolen
refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted
refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be
parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere,
the hair of the Indian Cashmere
goat,
and mohair,
the hair of the North African Angora
goat,
are types of wool known for their softness. Other animal textiles which are
made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña
wool,
llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats,
jackets,
ponchos,
blankets,
and other warm coverings. Angora
refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the Angora
rabbit. Qiviut
is the fine inner wool of the muskox.
Wadmal
is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE
(Alaee et al., 2003). Silk is an
animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon
of the Chinese silkworm
which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main
types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk'
such as Tussah silk. Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in
habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is
produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the
world's silk production consists of cultivated silk (Hammerskog and Wincent,
2009).
1.3.2
Plant Textiles
Grass,
rush,
hemp,
and sisal
are all used in making rope.
In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last
two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir
(coconut
fibre)
is used in making twine,
and also in floor mats, doormats,
brushes,
mattresses,
floor tiles, and sacking.
Straw
and bamboo are both used to
make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.
Fibres from pulpwood
trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle
are used in making paper.
Cotton,
flax, jute, hemp, modal
and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing. Piña
(pineapple
fibre)
and ramie
are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such
as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar
to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it
tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax. The inner bark
of the lacebark tree
is fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as
utilitarian articles such as rope. Acetate
is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets,
and taffetas.
Seaweed
is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate
is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the
alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area. Lyocell
is a synthetic fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described as a
synthetic silk equivalent; it is a tough fabric that is often blended with
other fabrics – cotton, for example. Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as
hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres.
1.3.3
Mineral Textiles
Asbestos
and basalt fibre are used for vinyl
tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding,
acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets (Yong et al., 2007). Glass
fibre is used in the production of ironing board and
mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials,
insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof,
and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with teflon
to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof
fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space
suits since 1968. Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire
have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold
and jewelry.
Hardware cloth
(US term only) is a coarse woven mesh
of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window
screening, but heavier and with a more open weave. Minerals and
natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery
cloth, a layer of emery
abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term
for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or
coarse sandpaper (Keim and Brandon,
2008).
1.3.4 Synthetic Textiles
Synthetic
textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the
manufacture of geo textiles. Polyester
fibre
is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as
cotton. Aramid
fibre
(e.g. Twaron)
is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour. Acrylic
is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in
replacement of them (Hammerskog and Wincent, 2009). Nylon is a fibre used to
imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose.
Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope
and outdoor clothing. Spandex
(trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane
product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to
make active wear, bras,
and swimsuits.
Olefin
fibre is a fibre used in active wear, linings, and warm
clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered
felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek.
Ingeo
is a polylactide fibre blended with other
fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most
other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration. Lurex
is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment. Milk
proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein
fibre
cloth was developed during World
War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and
America during the 1930s. Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles
easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial
properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable,
renewable
synthetic fibre (Fonte and Diwataet, 2005). Carbon
fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with
resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced
plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through
carbonization
1.4 WHERE
ARE TEXTILES MANUFACTURED IN NIGERIA?
· Textiles
are manufactured in Kano, at No. 53 FaggeTakuku, KartinKwari, Kano State
Nigeria.
· Lagos,
at No. 2 Ozoka Street Opposite Felix Egbamuno Street, satellite Town, Lagos
State Nigeria. And Plot 33 LSDPC, OdogunyanIkorodu, Lagos Nigeria.
· Port
Harcourt, at No. 9A Rumadolu Road, Rumola Port Harcourt, Rivers State Nigeria.
· Enugu,
Polo Part, GRA, Enugu Nigeria.
1.5
HOW THE USE OF TEXTILES BEGAN
The
study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the availability
and use of textiles and
other materials. At the same time, it helps in tracing the development of
technology for the making of clothing over human history. The wearing of
clothing is exclusively a human characteristic and is a feature of most human
societies. It is not known when humans began wearing clothes but anthropologists believe
that animal skins and vegetation were adapted into coverings as protection from
cold, heat and rain, especially as humans migrated to new climates. Clothing
and textiles have been important in human history. They reflect the materials
available in different civilizations at different times. They also reflect upon
the technologies that had been mastered in due course of time. The social significance
of the finished product reflects their culture.
Textiles can be felt or spun fibres made
into yarn and
subsequently netted, looped, knit or woven to
make fabrics, which appeared in the Middle East during the late stone
age. From
the ancient times to the present day, methods of textile production have
continually evolved, and the choices of textiles available have influenced how
people carried their possessions, clothed themselves,
and decorated their surroundings (Jenkins, et
al., 2009).
The
development of spinning and weaving began in ancient Egypt around 3400 B.C. The
tool originally used for weaving was the loom. From 2600 B.C. onwards, silk was
spun and woven into silk in China. Later in Roman times the European population
was clothed in wool, leather and linen. Textile was a product of home industry.
People produce textile to meet their own needs. Once production exceeded their
own needs, the textiles were traded for other goods. In the Middle Ages
broadcloth became popular and the broadcloth industry clustered in particular
in northern France, Flanders and Holland. Broadcloth was wear-free, water and
soil release, and long-lasting whilst requiring little care. The production of
broadcloth was first industrialized in Leiden. A transition took place from
working at home to market-oriented production and mechanization. Inventions
like the flying shuttle and the spinning machine made cheap mass production
possible in the United States. Around 1780 textile could be produced more
cheaply and in much larger quantities thanks to the mechanically driven loom
(steam engine). This was necessary because the population was growing
exponentially. During the Industrial Revolution various technological
inventions led to a different role for the worker in the process. The weaving
process turned into a processing industry. At the end of the 19th century
the first synthetic fibres were made and the discovery of nylon and later, for
example, polyester followed in the 20th century. These days’ synthetic
fibres are still being invented. Nevertheless, the large majority of textile
products continue to be made from natural materials. The cotton shirt has
become an indispensable feature in the urban landscape. Textiles material are
bought from large market, and in some area were they have market were textiles
are being sold only.
1.6 WAYS
TO IMPROVE THE TEXTILES INDUSTRY TO AVOID THE GROWTH OF MICROORGANISM.
The
large surface area and ability to retain moisture of textile structures enable
microbial growth, which causes a range of undesirable effects, not only on the
textile itself, but also on the user. Due to the public health awareness of the
pathogenic effects on personal hygiene and associated health risks, over the
last few years, intensive research has been promoted in order to minimize
microbes’ growth on textiles. Therefore, to impart an antimicrobial ability to
textiles, different approaches have been studied, being mainly divided into the
inclusion of antimicrobial agents in the textile polymeric fibres or their
grafting onto the polymer surface. Regarding the antimicrobial agents,
different types have been used, such as quaternary ammonium compounds,
triclosan, metal salts, polybiguanides or even natural polymers. Any
antimicrobial treatment performed on a textile, besides being efficient against
microorganisms, must be non-toxic to the consumer and to the environment. An
antimicrobial treatment performed on a textile needs to satisfy different
requirements besides being efficient against microorganisms, namely to be
suitable for textile processing; to present durability to laundering, dry
cleaning and hot pressing; to present a favorable safety and environmental
profile; and it should not harm the textile quality or appearance (Geo and Windier,
2013). Depending on the antimicrobial agent that is intended to be used, as
well the fibre type, including the composition, structure and surface texture,
there are different chemical and physical approaches that have been developed
or that are under development to impart antimicrobial properties to the textile
(Shahidi, 2008; Geo, 2012). Some approaches are based on the use of specific
antimicrobial agents, which in the case of synthetic fibres may be incorporated
into the polymeric matrix (Shahidi, 2008). Another possibility, which can be
used for synthetic and natural fibres or any textile fabric, is the
application, in the finishing stage, of antimicrobial agents on the material
surface (Bshena, 2012). Depending on the approach used the antimicrobial
textile may act by two different ways, by contact and/or diffusion. In the case
of contact, the agent is placed on the fibre and does not disperse, so it will
act just if the microorganism touches the textile surface. In the case of
diffusion, the agent is on the fibre surface or in the polymeric matrix, and it
will migrate from the textile to the external medium to attack the
microorganisms (Shishoo, 2012).
1.7
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING TEXTILES FOR CLOTHING.
1.7.1 How
to Choose Fabric for Clothes
When
starting a sewing project, you’ll begin in one of two places: either you’ll
have fallen in love with a pattern and need fabric to make it out of, or you’ll
have fallen in love with a sewing
fabric and need to find a suitable pattern to go with
it. Patterns will tell you which types of fabrics the pattern was designed for.
Although there are no sewing police to come arrest you if you deviate from the
suggested fabrics, beginning sewists especially will want to stick to the list.
The fabrics listed will have properties (in terms of weight, stretch and drape)
that complement the design of the pattern.
1.8
EFFECTS OF RAIN AND SUN ON TEXTILES
Various
textile fabrics were exposed to a wide range of climate conditions. Those
exposed to waterlogged conditions were destroyed rapidly. In the case of
cellulose fabrics this destruction was due solely to bacteria, and not to fungi
or actinomycetes. In the case of wool, the evidence of microbiological action
was not conclusive. Cellulose, wool, silk and cellulose rayon fabrics
disintegrated on exposure in microbiologically active soils. The destruction
was due to microbiological action, the rate being governed by the moisture
content of the soil and, to a lesser extent, by the temperature.
When
fabrics were exposed to the action of sun as well as rain and wind,
microbiological damage occurred when the moisture conditions were suitable for
the growth of microorganism .this damage was invariably less than that of
fabrics exposed in the shade at the same time station. Exposure of cellulose
fabrics both in sun and shade caused a lowering in viscosity, which causes more
extensive microbiological destruction, did not affect the viscosity, all sun
and shade exposure showed a lowering in pH value during the first two month.
1.9
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The
aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of microbes on used and
unused textiles.
The
specific objectives include:
· To
isolate and identify different microorganism present in used textiles
· To
isolate and identify different microorganism present in unused textiles
· To
determine the percentage occurrence of microorganism in textiles.
· To
ascertain the growth rate of microorganism in textiles
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