THE EFFECTS OF SOME SPECIES OF MICROORGANISMS ON BOTH USED AND NON-USED TEXTILE MATERIALS

ABSTRACT

This study therefore was to evaluate the effects of microbes on used and unused textile materials. From this study a total of nine bacterial and three fungal species were isolated from used and non-used textile materials. These microbial species were isolated using spread plate technique and they were identified using morphological characteristics, pigmentation on media, microscopy and biochemical methods which reveals the major bacteria and fungi isolates to be Escherichia coli, Staphylococci aurues, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Pseudomonas species, Enterococcus species, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium oxysporum. The microbial counts shows that mineral (asbestos) had the highest microbial load at 8.5x109 followed by synthetic (rugs) at 5.1x109 while the least was recorded on brazillian wool and polyesters at 2.2x109 each. The microbial counts from the unused textile material shows that plant (cotton) had the highest microbial load at 8.1x109 followed by brazillian wool at 4.0x109 while the least was recorded on polyesters at 1.2x109 each. The fungi counts from both samples shows that used textile material had high count compared to unused textile materials. The statistical analysis using T-test statistical package showed that there was significant difference between the various mean counts from both samples at (P< 0.05). It was also recorded in this study that the most widely distributed and abundant colony forming unit are Escherichia coli and Aspergillus flavus.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page                                                                                                                                i

Certification                                                                                                                           iii

Dedication                                                                                                                              iv

Acknowledgement                                                                                                                  v

Table of contents                                                                                                                    vi

Lists of Table                                                                                                                          viii

Abstract                                                                                                                                  ix

CHAPTER ONE                                                                                                              

1.1       Introduction                                                                                                                1

1.2       Uses of Textiles                                                                                                          1

1.3       Types of Textiles                                                                                                                2

1.3.1    Animal Textiles                                                                                                          3

1.3.2    Plant Textiles                                                                                                              4

1.3.3    Mineral Textile                                                                                                                       4

1.3.4    Synthetic Textiles                                                                                                       5

1.4       Where are Textiles Manufactured in Nigeria?                                                                      6

1.5       How the Use of Textiles Began.                                                                                 6

1.6       Ways to Improve the Textiles Industry to Avoid the Growth of Microorganism.          8

1.7       Factors to Consider when choosing Textiles for Clothing.                                      9

1.8       Effects of Sun and Rain on Textiles                                                                           9

1.9       Aim and Objective                                                                                                      10

1.9.1    Objectives                                                                                                                   10

CHAPTER TWO                                                                                                           

2.1       Literature Review                                                                                                                   11

2.1.1    Textiles as a Carriers of Microorganism                                                                  11

2.2       Types of Microbes that Attack Textile Materials                                                      12

2.3       Susceptibility of Textiles to Microorganisms                                                            14

2.3.1    Different Types of Fibers have different Susceptibilities to Microorganisms.         14

2.4       General Effect of Microbes on Textiles Materials                                                     15

2.5       Application of Antimicrobial Treatments on Textiles                                             16

2.5.1    Low Moisture Content and Application of Biocides in Textiles                               16   

2.5.2    Application of Antimicrobials by Leaching Technology                                           17

2.5.3    Application of Antimicrobials by Molecularly Bond Unconventional Technology  18

2.5.4    Adaptation and Mutation of Antimicrobes by Microorganism                                18

2.5.5    Natural and safer way out so far for Textiles                                                             19

CHAPTER THREE                                                                                                         

3.1       Materials and Methods                                                                                               20

3.2       Materials                                                                                                                     20

3.2.1    Sample Collection                                                                                                      20

3.2.2    Sterilization                                                                                                                20

3.3       Methods                                                                                                                      20

3.3.1    Isolation of Bacteria from used and used Textiles                                                     20

3.3.2    Bacteriological Analysis                                                                                             21

3.3.3    Fungal Isolation and Identification                                                                             21

3.4       Phenotypic Characteristics of Bacterial Isolates                                                        21

3.4.1    Gram Staining                                                                                                             21

3.5       Biochemical Test                                                                                                        22

3.5.1    Catalase                                                                                                                      22

3.5.2    Methyl Red (MR) Test                                                                                               22

3.5.3    Coagulase Test                                                                                                            22

3.5.4    Voges- Proskauer (VP) Test                                                                                       23

3.5.5    Indole Test                                                                                                                  23

3.5.6    Citrate Utilization Test                                                                                               24

3.5.7    Motility Test                                                                                                               24

CHAPTER FOUR                 

4.1 Results                                                                                                                              25

CHAPTER FIVE                                                                                                                                 

5.1       Discussion                                                                                                                          31

5.2       Conclusion                                                                                                                        32

5.3       Recommendation                                                                                                           32

REFERENCES

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II                      

LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER ONE

1.1       INTRODUCTION

Textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres (yarn or thread), (Lazarov et al., 2004). Yarn is produced by spinning  raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The related words fabric and cloth are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting and geotextile. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments, etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed (Cordoba et al., 2013)

1.2       USES OF TEXTILES

Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibre glass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery (Scheman et al., 1998).

Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxidenanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems" using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements.

1.3       TYPES OF TEXTILES

Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic). The first three are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum (Arai and Masanao, 2008). Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from light gauze-like gossamer to heavy grosgrain cloth and beyond.

1.3.1    Animal Textiles

Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the silkworm’s case).Wool refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirt proof (Trevisan et al., 2008; Adrian et al., 2009). Woolen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian Cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African Angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness. Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the Angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox. Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE (Alaee et al., 2003). Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk. Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk (Hammerskog and Wincent, 2009). 

1.3.2    Plant Textiles

Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in floor mats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking. Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok. Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper. Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax. The inner bark of the lacebark tree is fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope. Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas. Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area. Lyocell is a synthetic fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described as a synthetic silk equivalent; it is a tough fabric that is often blended with other fabrics – cotton, for example. Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres.

1.3.3    Mineral Textiles

Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets (Yong et al., 2007). Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space suits since 1968. Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewelry. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave. Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarse sandpaper (Keim and Brandon, 2008).

1.3.4    Synthetic Textiles

Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geo textiles. Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton. Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour. Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them (Hammerskog and Wincent, 2009). Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing. Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make active wear, bras, and swimsuits. Olefin fibre is a fibre used in active wear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek. Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration. Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment. Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s. Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre (Fonte and Diwataet, 2005). Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization

1.4       WHERE ARE TEXTILES MANUFACTURED IN NIGERIA?

·       Textiles are manufactured in Kano, at No. 53 FaggeTakuku, KartinKwari, Kano State Nigeria.

·       Lagos, at No. 2 Ozoka Street Opposite Felix Egbamuno Street, satellite Town, Lagos State Nigeria. And Plot 33 LSDPC, OdogunyanIkorodu, Lagos Nigeria.

·       Port Harcourt, at No. 9A Rumadolu Road, Rumola Port Harcourt, Rivers State Nigeria.

·       Enugu, Polo Part, GRA, Enugu Nigeria.

1.5       HOW THE USE OF TEXTILES BEGAN

The study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the availability and use of textiles and other materials. At the same time, it helps in tracing the development of technology for the making of clothing over human history. The wearing of clothing is exclusively a human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. It is not known when humans began wearing clothes but anthropologists believe that animal skins and vegetation were adapted into coverings as protection from cold, heat and rain, especially as humans migrated to new climates. Clothing and textiles have been important in human history. They reflect the materials available in different civilizations at different times. They also reflect upon the technologies that had been mastered in due course of time. The social significance of the finished product reflects their culture. Textiles can be felt or spun fibres made into yarn and subsequently netted, looped, knit or woven to make fabrics, which appeared in the Middle East during the late stone age. From the ancient times to the present day, methods of textile production have continually evolved, and the choices of textiles available have influenced how people carried their possessions, clothed themselves, and decorated their surroundings (Jenkins, et al., 2009).

The development of spinning and weaving began in ancient Egypt around 3400 B.C. The tool originally used for weaving was the loom. From 2600 B.C. onwards, silk was spun and woven into silk in China. Later in Roman times the European population was clothed in wool, leather and linen. Textile was a product of home industry. People produce textile to meet their own needs. Once production exceeded their own needs, the textiles were traded for other goods. In the Middle Ages broadcloth became popular and the broadcloth industry clustered in particular in northern France, Flanders and Holland. Broadcloth was wear-free, water and soil release, and long-lasting whilst requiring little care. The production of broadcloth was first industrialized in Leiden. A transition took place from working at home to market-oriented production and mechanization. Inventions like the flying shuttle and the spinning machine made cheap mass production possible in the United States. Around 1780 textile could be produced more cheaply and in much larger quantities thanks to the mechanically driven loom (steam engine). This was necessary because the population was growing exponentially. During the Industrial Revolution various technological inventions led to a different role for the worker in the process. The weaving process turned into a processing industry. At the end of the 19th century the first synthetic fibres were made and the discovery of nylon and later, for example, polyester followed in the 20th century. These days’ synthetic fibres are still being invented. Nevertheless, the large majority of textile products continue to be made from natural materials. The cotton shirt has become an indispensable feature in the urban landscape. Textiles material are bought from large market, and in some area were they have market were textiles are being sold only.

1.6       WAYS TO IMPROVE THE TEXTILES INDUSTRY TO AVOID THE GROWTH OF MICROORGANISM.

The large surface area and ability to retain moisture of textile structures enable microbial growth, which causes a range of undesirable effects, not only on the textile itself, but also on the user. Due to the public health awareness of the pathogenic effects on personal hygiene and associated health risks, over the last few years, intensive research has been promoted in order to minimize microbes’ growth on textiles. Therefore, to impart an antimicrobial ability to textiles, different approaches have been studied, being mainly divided into the inclusion of antimicrobial agents in the textile polymeric fibres or their grafting onto the polymer surface. Regarding the antimicrobial agents, different types have been used, such as quaternary ammonium compounds, triclosan, metal salts, polybiguanides or even natural polymers. Any antimicrobial treatment performed on a textile, besides being efficient against microorganisms, must be non-toxic to the consumer and to the environment. An antimicrobial treatment performed on a textile needs to satisfy different requirements besides being efficient against microorganisms, namely to be suitable for textile processing; to present durability to laundering, dry cleaning and hot pressing; to present a favorable safety and environmental profile; and it should not harm the textile quality or appearance (Geo and Windier, 2013). Depending on the antimicrobial agent that is intended to be used, as well the fibre type, including the composition, structure and surface texture, there are different chemical and physical approaches that have been developed or that are under development to impart antimicrobial properties to the textile (Shahidi, 2008; Geo, 2012). Some approaches are based on the use of specific antimicrobial agents, which in the case of synthetic fibres may be incorporated into the polymeric matrix (Shahidi, 2008). Another possibility, which can be used for synthetic and natural fibres or any textile fabric, is the application, in the finishing stage, of antimicrobial agents on the material surface (Bshena, 2012). Depending on the approach used the antimicrobial textile may act by two different ways, by contact and/or diffusion. In the case of contact, the agent is placed on the fibre and does not disperse, so it will act just if the microorganism touches the textile surface. In the case of diffusion, the agent is on the fibre surface or in the polymeric matrix, and it will migrate from the textile to the external medium to attack the microorganisms (Shishoo, 2012).

1.7       FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING TEXTILES FOR CLOTHING.

1.7.1    How to Choose Fabric for Clothes

When starting a sewing project, you’ll begin in one of two places: either you’ll have fallen in love with a pattern and need fabric to make it out of, or you’ll have fallen in love with a sewing fabric and need to find a suitable pattern to go with it. Patterns will tell you which types of fabrics the pattern was designed for. Although there are no sewing police to come arrest you if you deviate from the suggested fabrics, beginning sewists especially will want to stick to the list. The fabrics listed will have properties (in terms of weight, stretch and drape) that complement the design of the pattern.

1.8       EFFECTS OF RAIN AND SUN ON TEXTILES

Various textile fabrics were exposed to a wide range of climate conditions. Those exposed to waterlogged conditions were destroyed rapidly. In the case of cellulose fabrics this destruction was due solely to bacteria, and not to fungi or actinomycetes. In the case of wool, the evidence of microbiological action was not conclusive. Cellulose, wool, silk and cellulose rayon fabrics disintegrated on exposure in microbiologically active soils. The destruction was due to microbiological action, the rate being governed by the moisture content of the soil and, to a lesser extent, by the temperature.

When fabrics were exposed to the action of sun as well as rain and wind, microbiological damage occurred when the moisture conditions were suitable for the growth of microorganism .this damage was invariably less than that of fabrics exposed in the shade at the same time station. Exposure of cellulose fabrics both in sun and shade caused a lowering in viscosity, which causes more extensive microbiological destruction, did not affect the viscosity, all sun and shade exposure showed a lowering in pH value during the first two month.

1.9       AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of microbes on used and unused textiles.

The specific objectives include:

·       To isolate and identify different microorganism present in used textiles

·       To isolate and identify different microorganism present in unused textiles

·       To determine the percentage occurrence of microorganism in textiles.

·       To ascertain the growth rate of microorganism in textiles

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