ABSTRACT
This work was done to study the distribution of antibiotic resistant Salmonella species from hospital and non-hospital environment. Clinical sample such as stool and non-clinical sample such as swabs of abattoir’s tables were inoculated on Samonella Shigella agar using the streak method of inoculation. Resistance testing using a different antibiotics was done using the disc diffusion method. The highest resistance level of both isolates from both environment was recorded against Nalidixic acid, Gentamycin and Ampicillin (100%). This was followed by Streptomycin and Ceporex (80% and 70% respectively for hospital and non-hospital environment). Ciproflox showed the highest activity against the isolates from the different environment (80% and 100% activity for hospital and non-hospital environment respectively). The Salmonella isolates from hospital environment were more susceptible than those from non-hospital environment. Proper use of antibiotics should be encouraged to avoid development of resistance by organisms.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification Page ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement
iv
Table of contents v
List of Tables ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Aims
and Objectives of Study 3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature
Review 5
2.1 Introduction 5
2.1.1 Classification and Nomenclature of salmonella 6
2.1.2 Clinical manifestations 7
2.1.3 Epidemiology of salmonella 11
2.2 Characteristics of Salmonella 15
2.2.1 Taxonomy 15
2.3 Spectrum of Disease Caused by Salmonella species 18
2.4 Pathogenesis of Salmonella species Infection 19
2.5 Antibiotic Resistance of Salmonella species 21
CHAPTER
THREE
3.0 Materials
and Methods 24
3.1 Study
Area 24
3.2 Sample Collection 24
3.3 Method 24
3.4 Isolation of Salmonella Species 25
3.4.1 Hospitals Environments 25
3.4.2 Non-Hospital Environments 26
3.4.3 Antibiotic sensitivity testing 26
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results 28
CHAPTER
FIVE
5.0 Discussion,
Conclusion and Recommendation 30
5.1 Discussion 30
5.2 Conclusion 33
References
LIST OF TABLES
Table
2.1: Species and subspecies in the salmonella genus 16
Table
2.2: Antigenic formulae of some salmonella serotypes 17
Table 4.1: Sensitivity Test Result of Salmoenlla Typhi Isolated From Hospital
Environment. 29
Table 4.2: Sensitivity Test Result of Salmonella Species Isolated From Non
Hospital Environment. 30
Table 4.3: Resistant
Rate of Salmonella Typhi to the
Antibiotics (%). 31
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of
Study
Antibiotic
resistant of bacteria is a growing public health emergency since infections
from resistant bacteria are more hard and costly to treat (USDA, 2011). Since
the 1990, some strains of Salmonella became
resistant to a range of antibiotics. The resistance is caused by the use of
antibiotics in humans and animals husbandry. Nowadays, multidrug resistance
(MDR) has become a critically important issue in public health (USDA, 2011).
Salmonellosis imposes a significant cost
to society in many countries but just few countries report the data on economic
cost of the disease (USDA,
2011). It is estimated that
1.4 million non-typhoid Salmonella infections
resulted in 168,000 visits to physicians whereas 15000 hospitalizations and 580
deaths occur in the United States annually (USDA, 2011).
The estimated cost per case of human salmonellosis was approximately US$ 1,938
and total cost was close to US$ 3 billion annually in the United States in 2010
(WHO, 2005).
Antibiotic resistance in microorganisms is
either genetically inherent or the result of the microorganism being exposed to
antibiotic. Most of the antibiotic resistance has emerged as a result of
mutation or through transfer of genetic material between microorganisms. A
broad variety of biochemical and physiological mechanisms are responsible for
the development of resistance. Recent studies of almost 400 different bacteria
have demonstrated about 20,000 possible resistance genes (Davies, 2010).
The use of antibiotics is the single most
important factor leading to antibiotic resistance around the world. Antibiotics
are among the most commonly prescribed drugs used in human medicine. However,
up to 50% of all the antibiotics prescribed for people are not needed or are
not optimally effective as prescribed. Antibiotics are also commonly used in
food animals to prevent, control, and treat disease, and to promote the growth
of food-producing animals. The use of antibiotics for promoting growth is not
necessary, and the practice should be phased out. Recent guidance from the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) describes a pathway toward this goal. It is
difficult to directly compare the amount of drugs used in food animals with the
amount used in humans, but there is evidence that more antibiotics are used in
food production.
The other major
factor in the growth of antibiotic resistance is spread of the resistant
strains of bacteria from person to person, or from the non-human sources in the
environment, including food.
There are four
core actions that will help fight these deadly infections:
·
preventing
infections and preventing the spread of resistance;
·
tracking
resistant bacteria;
·
improving
the use of today’s antibiotics;
·
promoting
the development of new antibiotics and developing new diagnostic tests for
resistant bacteria.
Bacteria will inevitably find ways of
resisting the antibiotics we develop, which is why aggressive action is needed now
to keep new resistance from developing and to prevent the resistance that
already exists from spreading.
Antibiotics are
used extensively to prevent or to treat microbial infections in human and
veterinary medicine. Apart from their use in aquaculture, they are also
employed to promote more rapid growth of livestock. Most of the compounds used
in medicine are only partially metabolized by patients and are then discharged
into the hospital sewage system or directly into municipal waste water if used
at home. Along with excreta, they flow with municipal waste water to the sewage
treatment plant (STP). They may pass through the sewage system and end up in
the environment, mainly in the water compartment. Antibacterial substances used
for livestock enter the environment when manure is applied to fields. These antibiotics
may either end up in soil or sediment or in ground water.
1.2 Aims
and Objectives of Study
The general objective of this project is
to evaluate the distribution of antibiotic resistant Salmonella species in
hospitals and non-hospitals environments.
The specific objectives are;
1.
To
isolate Salmonella species from
hospital and non-hospital environment.
2.
To
determine the resistance pattern of the isolated Salmonella species.
3.
To
determine the rate of occurrence of resistance to antibiotics by the isolates
from the hospital and non-hospital environment.
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