TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO STUDY
1.2 Statement
of the Research Problem
1.3 Research
Questions
1.4 Aim
and Objectives
1.5
Research
Hypothesis
1.6 JUSTIFICATION
OF STUDY
1.7 Scope
of the Study
1.8
Study Area
1.8.1: Location
1.8.2: Physical Setting
1.8.3: Human Setting
1.8.4 Economic activities
1.9 Limitations of the Study
1.9.1 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
CHAPTER
TWO
2.1 Wetlands
2.2 Impact
of Flooding on Livelihood Systems
2.3 Governance
of flooding and Disaster Risk
2.4 TYPES AND CAUSES OF
FLOODING
2.4.1 MAN-MADE FACTOR OF FLOODING
2.1.2 NATURAL FACTOR OF FLOODING
2.4.3 TYPES OF FLOOD
2.4.4 Local floods
2.4.5 Flash floods
2.4.6 Riverine floods
2.4.7 Coastal floods
2.5 Characteristics of flood prone areas in Lagos state
2.6 IMPACTS OF URBAN FLOODS
2.6.1 Negative impacts
2.6.2 Positive impacts
2.6.2.1 Renewal of Ground
Water and Wetlands
2.6.2.2 Returning Nutrients
to Soil
2.6.2.3 Preventing Erosion
and Maintaining Land Mass Elevation
2.6.2.4 Recharge/Replenish
Ground Water
2.7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.7.1 CONCEPT OF VULNERABILITY
2.7.3 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT
2.8 LIVING COMMUNITIES AND FOOD TYPES
2.9 HUMAN IMPACTS
2.9.1 Ecosystem Approach to Human Health (Eco-health)
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Restatement
of Research Questions
3.3 Research
Design
3.4 Nature
of Data
3.4.1 Quantitative Data
3.5 SAMPLE
FRAME AND SIZE
3.6 SAMPLE
PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
3.7 Research instrument for data analysis
3.7.1 Descriptive
Tools
3.7.2 Inferential/Statistical
Analysis
CHAPTER
FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS
AND PRESENTATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTERED
4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS
4.2.1 Gender Distribution of the Respondents
4.2.2 Age Distribution of the Respondents
4.2.3 Educational Qualification of the Respondents
4.2.3 Quality of life of the respondents
4.2.4 Other Characteristics of the Respondents
4.3 INFRASTRUCTURE WITHIN THE STUDY AREA
4.4 User’s Perception of Infrastructure
4.5 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FLOODING
4.6 EFFECTS OF FLOODING ON USERS
4.6.1 Other effects of flooding
4.7 SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE DURING FLOODS
4.6 HEALTH IMPLICATION ON FLOODS
4.7 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION ON FLOODS
4.8 INFORMAL ACTIVITIES AFFECTED BY FLOODING
4.9 IMPACTS OF FLOODING ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES WITHIN THE STUDY AREA
CHAPTER
FIVE
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendations for further study
References:
Appendix:
QUESTIONNAIRE
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO STUDY
A
flood is an overflow of an
expanse of water that submerges land (Wikipedia 2011a). Floods are among the
most devastating natural disasters in the world, claiming more lives and
causing more property damage than any other natural phenomena. In Lagos
metropolis, though not leading in terms of claiming lives, flood affects and
displaces more people than any other disaster it also causes more damage to
properties. At least 20 per cent of the population is at risk from one form of
flooding or another (Etuonovbe,
2011). When such floods occur in the cities it is referred to as Urban
Flooding.
Generally, Flood is caused by two major factors
which involve the human and man-made factors, these factors obviously are
responsible for the generation and continuous occurrence of flooding in the
environment, and at any point negatively affect the environment at large.
The impact of flooding may be a worldwide
phenomenon, but the effects are more devastating in African cities stated
(Niasse, 2004). Lagos is not an exception given their prevailing socio-economic
problems in the area of housing in the urban areas. Urban areas will be faced
with increases in the frequency and intensity of heavy rainstorms, ocean surges
and other extreme weather events. The urban centers that will be more at risk
are those where these events are already widespread.
Etuonovbe (2011) sited that
flooding may occur when water in the river overflows its banks, or sometimes
results from a torrential rainfall due to climate change. It happens without
warning but with a surprise package that always delivers to unprepared
community like the ones in the Lagos metropolis i.e Ikorodu, Victoria Island,
kosofe Ajegunle, Bariga, Makoko, Ibafo-Mowe and so on. In Lagos metropolis,
flood disaster has been perilous to people, communities and institutions.
Recently, and other parts of the country have been affected by flooding,
chasing the inhabitants away and retarding commercial activities. It has
shattered both the built-environment and underdeveloped areas. It has claimed
many lives, and thousands of properties got lost due to its occurrences. One
prominent feature about it is that flooding does not discriminate, but
marginalizes whosoever refuses to prepare for its occurrence (UNHabitat, 2008).
Wetlands,
according to Carter (1981) are ‘land transitional between terrestrial and
aquatic systems where the water level is usually at or near the surface or the
land is covered by shallow water. Willard and Rezneat (1982) also defined
wetlands as those areas, which are capable of supporting water related
vegetation. Wetlands can be identified by the presence of those plants
(hydrophytes) that are adapted to life in the soils that form under flooded or
saturated conditions, According to Turner (1990) wetland ecosystems account for
about six per cent of the global land area and are considered by many
authorities to be among the most threatened of all environmental resources.
Both the physical extent of wetlands and their quality (in terms of species
diversity, etc.) have declined greatly over the past years (Turner, 1990). Most
of the physical losses have been due to the conversion of wetlands to other
land uses, for example residential and agricultural. However, the benefits
derived from such conversion must be sustainable, environmentally friendly and
tailored towards food security in the case of agricultural purposes.
The
wetlands around the estuaries of Ogun River and its environs in Ikorodu/Kosofe
areas of Lagos state remain unprotected. Thus, the Lower Ogun River Basin Wetlands
are presently experiencing a lot of physical changes. Due to the increasing
population pressure, increasing and urgent demand for food, high cost of land
and the almost unavailability and unaffordable cost of land in Lagos metropolis,
urban agricultural activities and other developmental processes are competing
for land, especially wetlands around Ikorodu and Kosofe areas of Lagos state. McGranahan
et al. (2007) noted that while economic activity and urban Development often
increase the environmental pressures that lead to flooding, it is the low
Income settlements and poor groups within all settlements that tend to be the
most vulnerable.
Therefore,
from the above observation, the vulnerability of wetlands in Lagos state to these
threats from Flooding are very extensive and numerous, the fact that Lagos is
an urban metropolis, in fact the Largest urban
agglomeration in Africa and Africa’s most populated city with 18 million people
and a Population growth rate of 6% per annum Projected at 25million people by
2015 (Odjogu, 2008). Lagos being the industrial and commercial nerve of Nigeria
and the most populous nation in Africa contributes to the phenomena which makes it pertinent for all the stakeholders
to bring to the fore the issue of Flooding and various mitigating and adaptive
measures to cushion its effects on socio-economic activities in the Lagos State.
This
research would be carried out so as to examine its extent to which the
socio-economic impacts of flooding are determined in the Ikorodu/Kosofe area of
Lagos state.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
The impacts of flooding
in the Lagos state as briefly observed earlier initiates devastating
consequences for the economy of the state and consequently housing and
infrastructural developments. Flooding has had adverse effect on the economy of
the state as a whole, creating large scale underdevelopment in some very
economic vital areas, hence, increasing population density in less vulnerable
communities and towns in the state which leads to overpopulation and
congestion. Sea-level rise will have significant impacts on coastal areas of
Africa, especially on its coastal megacities; because of the concentration of
poor populations in potentially hazardous areas those are more vulnerable to such
changes (Klein et al., 2002; Nicholls, 2004).
Traditionally,
studies have shown that flooding occur naturally through excessive rainfall
etc. Also this flooding could be as a result of human activities such as
blockage of drainage, excessive pavement of land, deforestation due to
overconsumption and felling of forest trees, neglect of nature and the
environment which leads humans to build and construct infrastructures on any
available land not regarding its characteristics etc.
The
wetlands around the estuaries of Ogun River and its environs in Ikorodu/Kosofe
areas of Lagos State remain unprotected. Thus, the Lower Ogun River Basin
Wetlands are presently experiencing a lot of physical changes. Due to the
increasing population pressure, increasing and urgent demand for food, high
cost of land and the almost unavailability and unaffordable cost of land in
Lagos state, urban agricultural activities and other developmental processes
are competing for land, especially wetlands around Ikorodu and Kosofe areas of
Lagos State. However, this wetland uses for agricultural purposes and other
uses are with consequences on food security, human health, nutritional
well-being and agro-ecosystem condition.
In
addition, in most developing countries, information on wetlands is very few and
insufficient. According to Turner (1990), there is a general lack of available
information in the literature concerning tropical wetlands and their valuation.
Information on the wetlands around the Lower Ogun River Basin in Ikorodu area of
Lagos State with interface with the Lagos state is generally lacking.
Inadequate resource information and the low priority accorded it in the
planning process is one of the greatest weaknesses in the efforts of developing
countries to develop (Adeniyi, 1985).
Asangwe
(1992) estimated that about 60 per cent of Lagos state was originally natural
wetlands. However, if wetlands are altered without first taking into
consideration their full value, the negative consequences can be felt
immediately by local people, the economy of a region or nation may be affected
adversely if the alterations are many or large. According to LUCC Newsletter
(2004), initial forest (wetlands) clearing for any purposes, for example,
results in carbon emissions from biomass removal, habitat loss, and changes in
disease vectors. Consequences from land use intensification in later stages of
a landuse transition involve nutrient runoff from synthetic fertilizers, human
health consequences associated with urban health islands, and nitrous oxide
emissions to the atmosphere. In the Lower Ogun River Basin Wetlands, there has
being changes in the functional role being played by the changed wetland due to
influx of population and the rapid urbanization, plus their various
socio-economic activities and the needs to provide food for the people at low
cost. Presently, more and more wetlands are being taken over for urban
agricultural purpose.
Thus,
the is need to examine the health implications of such conversion using the
ecosystem approach, which allows for contributions from trans-disciplinary
approach with the goal of viewing the benefits, in terms of food security and
diet diversity; the agro-ecosystem conditions, and the negatives health
implications. The strong and highly complex interaction and interrelation of
socio-economic and cultural determinants present a challenge for developing a
holistic comprehension of environmental degradation and its impact on human
health and well-being. Hence, the ecosystem approach promotes positive action
on the environment that improves community well-being with the sole goal of
having a sustainable development policy and action in place. Therefore, the
research problem is to examine the extent to which flooding affects the health
and livelihoods of people.
1.3 Research Questions
To
address the research problem, the following questions are asked;
1
What are the factors responsible for
flooding in the study area?
2
What are the effects of flooding on the social
(health) and economic (trading, agriculture) conditions in the study area?
3
What are the existing policies and
plausible mitigating measures? How have they been implemented in the study area?
1.4 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study is to examine the relative effects of
natural and human factors in the determination of the socio-economic impacts of
flooding in the study area.
1.
Identify and account for factors
responsible for flooding in the study area.
2.
Examine the social (health) and economic
(trading, agriculture) conditions in the study area.
3.
Examine whether the social economic
conditions are influenced by flooding in the study area.
4.
Examine policy implications of this
flooding and the social economic conditions in the study area.
1.5
Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis
is defined as a tentative statement of a fact which is yet to be proven for its
validity. The two hypotheses are the Null Hypothesis, Ho and the alternative
hypothesis, H1. And they are applicable in this research thus,
Ho:
there is no significant relationship between flooding and socio economic
conditions.
H1:
there is significant relationship between flooding and socio economic
conditions.
1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
The
issue of flooding occupies a stage in the deliberation of current events
primarily because of its hold on the location of the Lagos state on which
houses various developments and being the commercial hub of the country is
sited on and which forms the basis of all human and material wealth. The
research is pertinent as it attempts to highlight the socio-economic
implications of the consequences of these flooding causes and impacts on the
environment. The issue of commerce and other effects caused by the impacts of
flooding presents a dynamic challenge to professionals in the built environment
in terms of innovations in construction and development of infrastructures that
can withstand the test of change, securing life and properties and at the same
time maintaining the aesthetic, strength, comfort, compatibility and cost
effectiveness of the environment without compromising quality.
This
research is of paramount importance to the government and their agencies
especially planners either political or professionals as it brings to the fore
the need for not only reactive but also pro-active measures by creating the
necessary framework and enacting
appropriate policies necessary to mitigate and adapt to the changes that may be ushered in by
climate change.
Financial institutions like banks
and insurance companies will benefit from this assessment as it bring awareness
about the likely risks inherent in the areas where there credit facilities and
insurance cover are being channeled into and ways the roles they could play
given the dangers which flooding portraits.
Flooding
has been identified as one of the major factors that prevents Africa’s growing
Population of city dwellers from escaping poverty and stands in the way of
United Nations 2020 Goal of achieving significant improvement in the lives of
urban slum dwellers (Action Aid, 2006).this research would help in identifying
various contrasting variables and causes of flooding in the selected area in
Lagos state.
Aside
from physical location and exposure to flood hazards, vulnerability to floods
arises out of the social, economic and ecological circumstances of everyday
living that result from social power relations. Social relations, structures
and processes can influence the vulnerability of households and communities to
floods through several pathways. On the other hand, social, economic,
political, cultural and historical processes influence how flood hazards affect
people in varying degrees and differing intensities. The study supports the
emerging view that places adaptation to shocks associated with climate change
as a subset of disaster risk reduction.
This
paper attempts to contribute to a better understanding of the vulnerability of
poor urban Communities in the coastal city of Lagos and the negative socio-
economic impact they are at risk to by exploring the links between city
developments in Lagos, with particular reference to growth of slums, and risks
from climate change. The impacts On, and vulnerabilities of residents of
selected poor urban communities along the coast of Lagos To the increasing
risks of floods arising from climate change are assessed within an integrated
Assessment framework.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study attempts to assess
the impact of flood incidence on the socio-economic activities in Lagos state,
this paper emphasizes more on socio-economic activities that involves commerce,
agriculture and health, identifying
the causes and the effects caused by the impacts of flooding and also
strategically procuring mitigating strategies in solving this menace. The
selected area is Ikorodu/ kosofe area of Lagos state. This area was selected as
it represents an area of recent activities in terms of the incidence of flood.
This paper would carefully examine and compare impacts in this community
putting into consideration their socio economic characteristics.
1.8 Study
Area
The study area
covers a region, which according to Oyebande et al. (2003) is refer to as the
Lower Ogun River Basin Wetlands and it is a major wetland region in Nigeria
located in Ikorodu/Kosofe area of Lagos State. The following Local Government
Areas (LGAs) falls within or partly within the study area: Kosofe, Somolu and
Ikorodu Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Lagos State, and it also extend into
Ogun State around the OPIC Estate.
1.8.1:
Location
The study area
is located around Longitude 3º22´E and 3º39´E, as well as Latitude 6º31´N and
6º39´N. Ikeja bound the region to the west, the eastern end of Ikorodu LGA to
the east, and Akoka/Ilaje-Bariga in Somolu LGA and the Lagos Lagoon to the
southeast. It also shares a boundary with Ogun State in the north (see Map 1
and Map 2). The areal extent of the study area is about 361.02Km.sq.
1.8.2:
Physical Setting
The topography
of the area is generally low-lying undulating flat landform, but with some very
rugged areas having scarp slopes and gorges. The altitude varies from sea level
to about 15metres above sea level in some parts of Ogudu, Shaginshan and
Magodo. The major water bodies in the area include River Ogun and the Lagos
Lagoon in the southeastern part of the area. Other important water bodies,
which traversed the area, include the Majidun and Agboyi Rivers. The area is
covered with clay-sandy soil along the coastal axis in the south and clay-loamy
soil at the interior part. Apart from the area still covered by forest, most of
the clay-loamy soil of the interior have been seriously leached and presently
look more like laterite soil. The soils are well drained with the exception of
those found in the wetland areas. The vegetation of the region is that of
coastal swamp and marsh forest, part of which had given way to the construction
of houses, markets and other infrastructures.
The climate of
the area is influenced by two air masses, namely: Tropical maritime and the
Tropical continental air masses. The tropical maritime air mass is warm, wet
and originates from the Atlantic Ocean. The tropical continental air mass is
warm, dry, dusty and originates from the Sahara desert. Hence, the climate of
the area is similar to that of the other coastal region of the tropical West
Africa with tropical sub-equatorial climate. The temperature is high throughout
the year with an annual mean maximum temperature of 33.27ºC, while annual mean
minimum temperature is 20.27ºC and the annual mean temperature is 26.77ºC. The
study area experience two separate seasons, namely: the wet season, which runs
from April to October, with August being the little dry season period. The main
dry season is from November to March. The area records an average annual
rainfall of about 1830mm, with maxima in June and September. Most rainfall
experienced is of conventional origin; however, various disturbances contribute
to the rainfall especially between February and May. The mean daily relative
humidity of the area is 81.65%.
1.8.3: Human
Setting
According to
1991 census figure, the population of the area was put at 325,522 for Ikorodu
Local Government Area (LGA), 181,914 for Kosofe. The indigenous dwellers of the
area are mainly the Ijebus (a Yoruba sub-group). However, people from other
parts of the country, as well as foreigners also inhabit the area. The major
settlements within the study area include Ikorodu, Owutu, Ijede, Egbin,
Ajegunle, Owode-Onirin, Kosofe, Osolo, Abule ipakodo and Majidun, as well as
other minor settlements.
Fig 1: Map of Lagos state highlighting Ikorodu/Kosofe area.
Fig 2: Map of the study area showing major settlements, source: LABCARS.
1.8.4 Economic activities
Farming, hunting and
fishing have been the chief occupations of the local people for many decades.
However, commerce and industry are other major human activities within the
area. In Ikorodu area of the study area, most of the human activities are in
cottage industries in area of mat making, tie and dye, weaving of basket and
chair, fish smoking and food processing. There is presence of some
manufacturing industries such as Ragolis Water Limited Ikorodu; Paterson and
Zochonis (PZ) Industries PLC, Ikorodu and Dangote Spaghettis Industry in
Ebute-Ipakodo. Around Kosofe area of the study area, there is presence of the
Metal and spare parts market in Owode-Onirin, the Planet Plastic industries in
Mile 12, sawmill (plank) industries, as well as the popular food market at Mile
12. Fishing activities are being carried out mainly in the following areas
located within the study area: Ebute-Ipakodo, Majidun, Ajegunle, Owutu,
Ketu-Alapere, Ogudu and Oworonsoki. In addition, there is sand mining activity
around Majidun, Ajegunle and Oworonsoki, while firewood gathering is mostly
restricted to Majidun area.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
1. Non-standardization of
data collection;
2. Lack
of appropriate materials and equipment for data collection, processing and
storage/retrieval;
3. The
time frame for conducting this research was not enough to cover a wider area of
study
4. The
paucity of fund available was also a major constraint.
5. The
unavailability of key stakeholders to respond to the questionnaires and
interviews
6. The
unwillingness on the part of the respondents to release important and key
information required for a proper analysis.
1.9.1 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
In the Lagos Metropolis, many
flooding mitigating measures have been taken on local level mainly by state
agencies, Local Government, private companies and even local organizations and
institutional bodies. This paper contributes intensively to identifying the
societal and economical effects of the impacts of flooding on the activities of
selected vulnerable communities in Lagos state.
This paper would contain data on,
structural location and neighborhood characteristics of flood vulnerable
communities in the Lagos state; it would also evaluate and compare changes in
socio-economic activities in the selected areas with proximate and similar but
flood free neighborhoods.
Furthermore, recommendations on plausible
solutions in terms of mitigating and adaptation measures in light of flooding
effects and the implementing strategies would be made as well as the structural
analysis of both the positive and negative impacts of flooding on
socio-economic activities in the selected area in Lagos state.
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