PREVALENCE OF MULTIDRUG RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ISOLATED FROM NASAL CAVITY OF STUDENTS

ABSTRACT

This study determined the prevalence of multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal cavity of MOUAU students. A total of forty (40) apparently healthy students of MOUAU with different ages and socioeconomic status served as the study population of which this nasal samples were cultured on Nutrient Agar, Blood Agar Medium, MacConkey agar, Manitol Salt agar using streak plate techniques. A total eleven (11) Staphylococcal strains were isolated from (23 of 40) nasal samples i.e. (4) from female and (7) from male. The prevalence rate in this study showed that the highest number and percentage of Staphylococcal isolates was observed in the female nasal samples 7(30.4%), while the lowest isolate was recorded in male nasal samples 4(23.5%). 21(52.5%) of the 40 samples showed no traces of Staphylococcus specie. However, the drug susceptibility profile of bacterial isolate from nasal samples reveals varying percentage of sensitivity and resistance to the antibiotics. From this study, Ofloxacin (5mcg) and Gentamicin (10mcg) exhibited high percentage of sensitivity against the Staphylococus isolates at 10(90.9%) each. Cefuroxime (30mcg) and Ceftazidime (30mcg) showed high level of resistance against the Staphylococus isolates at 11(100%). No resistance to Ofloxacin (5mcg) was noted. This study reported high multi-drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from anterior nares of healthy male and female students of MOUAU in which 11(27.5%) of them were MRSA. Therefore, there is need to discourage antibiotics abuse and to implement strategies for elimination of nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus to prevent severe Staphylococcus aureus infections in our environments and that Ofloxacin (5mcg) and Gentamicin (10mcg) antibiotics could be of alternative of choice to use and to control MRSA infection as an effective antibacterial agent.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page                                                                                                                                i

Certification                                                                                                                           iii

Dedication                                                                                                                              iv

Acknowledgement                                                                                                                  v

Table of Contents                                                                                                                   vi

List of Tables                                                                                                                          vii

Abstract                                                                                                                                  ix

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       Introduction                                                                                                                1

1.1       Aim and Objectives of Study                                                                                     3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0       Literature Review                                                                                                       4

2.1       Antimicrobial Drug Resistance                                                                                  4

2.1.1    Antibiotic Resistance: Meaning and History                                                              4

2.2       Multiple Drug Resistant Organisms                                                                           4

2.2.1    Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)                                             5

2.2.2    Penicillin Resistance                                                                                                  7

2.2.3    Vancomycin Resistant S. aureus (VRSA)                                                                  7

2.3       Causes of Antibiotic Resistance                                                                                 8

2.4       Epidemiology of Resistance                                                                                       9

2.5       Mechanisms of Action of Antibiotics                                                                        11

2.5.1    Inhibition of Cell-Wall Synthesis                                                                               11

2.5.2    Inhibition of Protein Synthesis                                                                                   12

2.5.3    Injury to the Plasma Membrane                                                                                 13

2.5.4    Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis                                                                         14

2.5.5    Inhibition of Essential Metabolites                                                                            14

2.6       Mechanisms of Antibiotics Resistance                                                                      15

2.6.1    Intrinsic or Natural                                                                                                     15

2.6.2    Acquired Resistance                                                                                                   16

2.7       Staphylococcus aureus Cell Structure and Metabolism                                             16

2.8       Virulence Components                                                                                               17

2.9       Carriage of Staphylococcus species as a Risk Factor for Infection                                    18

2.9.1    Hemodialysis                                                                                                              19

2.9.2    CAPD                                                                                                                          19

2.9.3    HIV, ARC, and AIDS                                                                                                 20

2.9.4    Community-Acquired Infections                                                                                21

2.9.5    Nosocomial Infections                                                                                                22

2.10     Determinants of Nasal Carriage of Staphylococcus species                                      23

CHAPTER THREE

3.0       Materials and Methods                                                                                               25

3.1       Population of Study                                                                                                    25

3.2       Sample Collection                                                                                                      25

3.3       Sterilization of Materials                                                                                            25

3.4       Preparation of Media for Identification of Staphylococcus species                                    25

3.5       Inoculation and Isolation                                                                                            26

3.6       Identification of the Isolates                                                                                       26

3.6.1    Gram Staining Techniques                                                                                         26

3.7       Biochemical Test for Identification of Staphylococcus species                                    27

3.7.1    Urease Production Tests                                                                                             27

3.7.2    Catalase Test                                                                                                               27

3.7.3    Coagulase Test                                                                                                           28

3.8       Determination Methicillin Resistance among the Staphylococcus Isolates                        28

3.9       Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing                                                                                28

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0       Results                                                                                                                        29

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0       Discussion and Conclusion                                                                                        33

5.1       Discussion                                                                                                                   33

5.2       Conclusion                                                                                                                  37

            References

LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION

Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobic gram-positive coccal bacterium and due to a combination of numerous bacteria immune-evasive strategies which it uses, it is considered a successful pathogen. The nasal passages is considered to be the major habitat and the biggest supply of S. aureus in people, yet numerous body locales can harbor this bacterium (Lowy, 2003). S. aureus is a typical tenant of the skin, perineum and can likewise be found in the axillae, vagina and the gastrointestinal tract (Williams, 2003). S. aureus strains are noteworthy human pathogens and are conceivably ready in contaminating any human body tissue, bringing on everything from skin contaminations to life-debilitating sicknesses. In people, the diseases brought on by S. aureus can be partitioned into these three sorts in general; shallow sores, (for example, surgical site and wound contaminations), life and systemic undermining factors, (for example, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, pneumonia, mind abscesses/wounds, bacteraemia and meningitis), then toxinoses, (for example, poisonous stun disorder, sustenance harming and singed skin disorder (Alo et al., 2013). The sign of staphylococcal contamination are the boils that contain discharge which is made up of dead neutrophils, dead and living microbes, tissue (necrotic), the lysed host substance and bacterial cells.

Staphylococcus aureus is both a human commensal and a frequent cause of clinically important infections. The ecological niches of S. aureus strains are the anterior nares (Vinodhkumaradithyaa et al., 2009). One of the important sources of staphylococci for nosocomial infection is nasal carriage among hospital personnel. Almost 25% of the health care workers are stable nasal carriers, and 30% to 50% of them also possess the bacteria on their hands. Occasionally, health care workers who carry S. aureus in their nares can cause outbreaks of surgical-site infections. Most of invasive S. aureus infections are assumed to arise from nasal carriage (Von-Eiff et al., 2001).

Staphylococcus aureus is an adaptable, opportunistic pathogen with abilities to persist and multiply in a variety of environments and cause a wide spectrum of diseases in both humans and animals (Cucarella et al., 2004). In humans, S. aureus is a major pathogen responsible for both nosocomial and community-acquired infections (Francois et al., 2005), including skin and wound infections, toxic shock syndrome, arthritis, endocarditis, osteomyelitis and food poisoning. In animals, staphylococcal infections cause substantial economic losses in livestock industry worldwide (Mork et al., 2005).

The association between S aureus nasal carriage and staphylococcal disease was first reported by Danbolt in 1931, who studied furunculosis (Solberg, 2005). The increasing incidence of penicillin-resistant S aureus hospital infections since 1947 emphasised the need for a better understanding of the pathogenesis of staphylococcal disease. Subsequently, numerous studies confirmed Danbolt’s finding. A causal relation between S aureus nasal carriage and infection is supported by the fact that the nasal S aureus strain and the infecting strain share the same phage type or genotype. Furthermore, nasal application of an antistaphylococcal drug temporarily decolonises the nose and other body sites, which prevents infection (Kluytmans and Wertheim, 2005). Our knowledge of the mechanisms, risks, and treatment of S aureus nasal carriage has greatly expanded over the past decade.

Colonization of S. aureus in humans is a critical prerequisite of subsequent clinical infection of the skin, blood, lung, heart, and other deep tissues, and also sepsis (Frank et al., 2010). S. aureus infections are growing problems worldwide, with mortality rates ranging from 6% to 40% (Frank et al., 2010). Healthy individuals can host S. aureus in the nasopharynx, body surface, and vagina. It is estimated that 80% of infections with S. aureus are endogenous, caused by the colonizing strain. Risk factors for colonization include young age, male sex, underlying comorbidities, sharing a carrierʹs household, smoking, having a history of hospitalization, and recent contact with animals (Ruimy et al., 2010). Persistent nasal carriage of S. aureus is the primary reservoir for this pathogen. The organism is normally present in the nasal vestibule of about 35% of apparently healthy individuals and its carriage varies between different ethnic and age groups (Adesida et al., 2007). Its prevalence has been severally reported in healthy populations including 36% in nares of Japanese adults and 32.4% in nasal cavity of adults in the USA (Onanuga and Temedie, 2011). Due to an increasing number of infections caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains, which are now most often multiresistant, therapy has become problematic.

The incidence of community-acquired and hospital-acquired S. aureus infections has been rising with increasing emergence of drug-resistant strains called methicillin-resistant S. aureus. Methicillin resistant is due to the presence of mec A genes coding for penicillin binding protein (PBP2A) with a low affinity for β-lactam antibiotics (Ito et al., 2001). In Indian hospitals, MRSA is one of the common causes hospital-acquired infections and different hospitals have reported anywhere from 30-80% methicillin-resistant based on antibiotic sensitivity tests (Anupurba et al., 2003). Resistance toward antibiotics is associated with an increase in disease severity, which increases period of hospitalization, high mortality and increasing treatment costs, including a need for use of alternative drugs (Ogeer-Gyles, 2006).

1.1       AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal cavity of MOUAU students while the specific objectives are;

·       To isolate and identify Staphylococcus aureus from nasal cavity of MOUAU students

·       To determine the antibiogram of Staphylococcus isolate from the nasal cavity of MOUAU students

Buyers has the right to create dispute within seven (7) days of purchase for 100% refund request when you experience issue with the file received. 

Dispute can only be created when you receive a corrupt file, a wrong file or irregularities in the table of contents and content of the file you received. 

ProjectShelve.com shall either provide the appropriate file within 48hrs or send refund excluding your bank transaction charges. Term and Conditions are applied.

Buyers are expected to confirm that the material you are paying for is available on our website ProjectShelve.com and you have selected the right material, you have also gone through the preliminary pages and it interests you before payment. DO NOT MAKE BANK PAYMENT IF YOUR TOPIC IS NOT ON THE WEBSITE.

In case of payment for a material not available on ProjectShelve.com, the management of ProjectShelve.com has the right to keep your money until you send a topic that is available on our website within 48 hours.

You cannot change topic after receiving material of the topic you ordered and paid for.