ABSTRACT
Water is not only essential for life but also an indispensable factor in socio- economic development of any community. A wide array of parasitic threats to drinking water are in existence, especially protozoa and helminthes. In view of this, parasitic and water quality assessment of drinking water sources at Nkwo-egwu community was carried out to ascertain the quality of this natural resource. To assess this, 45 water samples from 8 sources (Rainwater, Iyiocha, Iyiumuakam, Iyindika, private borehole, public borehole, sachet water and stored water) were collected between March and August, 2016. The water samples were processed for physico-chemical and parasitological analysis method using macroscopy, filtration, centrifugation and microscopy for parasitological analysis while standard methods were adopted for physico-chemical analysis respectively. It was revealed that the water sources investigated had parasitic infestation. Streams had the highest prevalence of parasitic contamination 15(53.57%) followed by boreholes 7(24.99%) and stored water 4 (14.29%) while rainwater and sachet water recorded had the least 1(3.57%). Protozoans cysts were the most parasitic genera encountered with Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia accounting for 10(35.71%), followed by Entamoeba coli 2(7.14%). Helminthes eggs of Ancyclostoma duadenale and Ascaris lumbricoides accounted for 2(7.14%) and 4(14.29%) respectively. Higher prevalence of parasites 23(82.14%) were recorded in rainy season while 5(17.85%) of parasites were encountered in dry season. This may be due to the effect of rainfall. Physico-chemical analysis indicated that fluoride was found to be higher (2.85-21.2mg/l) than the stipulated standard, however, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), hardness and nitrate conformed to the required standards. Most of the physico-chemical parameters tested in all the water samples were within the permissible limits stipulated by the drinking water standards whereas fluoride content is high hence the consumption of water with such fluoride content could cause skeletal fluorosis but could be used for other domestic purposes. Findings from this study showed that the parasitic load of the water sample could constitute epidemiological threats to public health. Inhabitants of this community should boil or treat their water before consumption while Provision of portable water by both government and relevant stakeholders should be made available to the residents as this will reduce the rate at which the spread of water-borne parasitic diseases may occur.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
List of Plates xii
Abstract vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
to the Study
1
1.2 Statement
of Problem 4
1.3 Justification 5
1.4 Aim
and Objectives 5
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Properties
of Water 6
2.2 Drinking
Water Quality and Guidelines 6
2.3 Intensity and Prevalence of Waterborne
Parasites 15
CHAPTER
3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Description
of the Study Area 22
3.2 Study Population 24
3.3 Determination
of Sample Size 24
3.4 Sample
Collection 24
3.5 Procedure 25
3.5.1 Processing of water samples for
physico-chemical analysis 25
3.5.2 Identification of parasites 25
3.5.2.1 Direct wet preparation of water samples 26
3.5.2.2 Iodine
preparation of water samples 26
3.5.3 Physico-chemical analysis 26
3.5.3.1 Temperature 26
3.5.3.2 pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity,
electrical conductivity and total
dissolved solids. 26
3.5.3.3 Ammonium and nitrate. 26
3.5.3.4 Chloride. 27
3.5.3.5 Hardness 27
3.5.3.6 Turbidity 27
3.5.3.7 Fluoride 27
3.6 Consent
and Ethical Consideration 28
3.7 Data
Collection Techniques 28
3.8 Data
Analysis 28
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results 29
4.1.1 Prevalence
of parasites in relation to sources of drinking water 29
4.1.2 Prevalence
of parasites in relation to sampling period 32
4.1.3 Summary of the physico-chemical parameters
recorded in the different 34
water sources.
4.1.4 Correlation
between physico-chemical parameters and detected waterborne
Parasites 36
4.1.5 Comparison
of physico-chemical parameters of different sampling sites 37
4.1.5.1 Variation of pH against sampling period. 37
4.1.5.2 Variation of water temperature
against sampling period. 39
4.1.5.3 Variation of salinity against
sampling period. 41
4.1.5.4 Variation of dissolved oxygen against
sampling period 43
4.1.5.5 Variation of hardness against
sampling period. 45
4.1.5.6 Variation of nitrate against sampling
period. 47
4.1.5.7 Variation of electrical conductivity
against sampling period 49
4.1.5.8 Variation of total dissolved solids
against sampling period. 51
4.1.5.9 Variation of chlorides against
sampling period 53
4.1.5.10 Variation of turbidity against
sampling period 55
4.1.5.11 Variation of ammonium against
sampling period 57
4.1.5.12
Variation of fluoride against sampling period 59
4.1.6 Background
characteristics of respondents 61
4.1.6.1 Sources of drinking water 63
4.1.6.2 Frequency of water supply 65
4.1.6.3 Physical
quality of drinking water 67
4.1.6.4 Association
between sources of drinking water and educational
attainment of respondents 69
4.1.6.5 Different storage methods used by residents
of Nkwo-Egwu. 73
4.2 Discussion 75
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 84
5.2 Recommendation
85
5.3 Contribution
to Knowledge 86
References 87
Appendix 98
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1: Prevalence of parasites in relation to
sources of drinking water 31
2: Prevalence of parasites in relation to
sampling period 33
3: Summary of the physico-chemical
parameters recorded in the different
water sources. 35
4: Distribution of respondents according
to age, sex, educational attainment
and occupation. 62
5: Sources of drinking water 64
6: Frequency
of water supply 66
7: Perceptions of physical characteristics
of drinking water 68
9: Relationship between sources of
drinking water and educational status
of respondent between March-May 72
10: Different
storage methods used by residents of Nkwo-egwu. 74
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
3.1: Map of umuahia north showing study area. 23
4.2: Variation of pH against sampling period. 38
4.3: Variation of water temperature against
sampling period. 40
4.4: Variation of salinity against sampling
period 42
4.5: Variation of dissolved oxygen against
sampling period. 44
4.6: Variation of hardness against sampling
period. 46
4.7: Variation of nitrate against sampling
period. 48
4.8: Variation of electrical conductivity
against sampling period . 50
4.9: Variation of total dissolved solids
against sampling period. 52
4.10: Variation of chlorides against sampling
period. 54
4.11: Variation of turbidity against sampling
period. 56
4.12: Variation of ammonium against sampling
period. 58
4.13: Variation of fluoride against sampling
period. 60
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE PAGE
1: Giardia lamblia
106
2: Entameoba histolytica 107
3: Ascaris lumbricoides
108
4: Entameoba coli
109
5: Ancyclostoma
duodenale 110
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
TO THE STUDY
Water
is of fundamental importance to human life, animals and plants (Iyaji et.al.,
2016). Safe drinking water is of basic necessity to human physiology as man’s
continued existence depends largely on its availability (Nwosu et. al., 2004). A lot of diseases which
are infectious have been seen to be transmitted through water ( Wright et. al.,
2004; Younes et. al., 2001) with some
of these diseases being common causes of deaths especially in developing
countries (Eshcol et. al., 2009; WHO, 2004). It has become imperative
that safe drinking water is provided especially in the rural areas that lack
access to public water supply system (Eshcol et. al., 2009; Edema et.
al., 2001).
Omalu et. al. (2010) opined that majority of inhabitants in
the major cities of Nigeria lack access to pipe borne water, maybe due to either
unavailability or inadequacy. This factor has made them to resort to the costly
alternative of buying water from tank vendors; sachet or bottled water as a
major source of drinking water (Sunday et.
al., 2011).
Waterborne parasitic infections are
considered a threat and of public health importance majorly in developing
countries (Oyedeji et. al., 2010) .
Biological contaminants like viruses, bacteria, helminthes,
protozoa and fungi constitute the major cause of food-borne and water-borne
diseases with different degrees of severities from mild indisposition to
life-threatening illness, in some cases; both (Okonko et.al., 2009).
However, the volume of water required by
individuals varies depending on climate, standard of living, habit of the people
and even age and sex. A factor that affects the access to quality drinking water
is the location of the water source to the house. This condition pushes the
person involved mostly women and children (especially girls) to travel
distances to get safe drinking water which prevents them from engaging in
productive ventures or going to school like their male counterparts.
Furthermore, in a bid to alleviate the stress
in fetching safe drinking water, they often resort to reducing the quantity of
water used in the house far below the recommended volume and also they may
resort to fetching water from unimproved sources e.g. pond, unprotected well,
stream. Safe drinking water is that which does pose significant health
challenge over a life time consumption, including any sensitivities that might
occur in different phases of life. It is
water which is free from pathogenic microbes, chemicals/substance and
aesthetically acceptable.
It is important that this type of water
should not only be available, but also be available in enough quantity all the
time. In assessing quality of drinking water, physical, chemical and
bacteriological parameters must be considered.
Physical parameters include colour, odour,
taste, temperature, pH, turbidity etc. There are myriad of chemical substances
which may be naturally present or introduced (even chemicals used for water
treatment) into water; those that are naturally present seldom pose risk to
health. However anthropogenic chemicals released (fertilizer, pesticides,
herbicides, industrial effluents and by-products etc) carry more health risk to
consumers. Fortunately, whether chemical is naturally present or introduced
into water, there are maximum allowable concentrations (limit) of most of them
proposed by WHO which serves as guide.
Poor quality of safe drinking water is the
reason for the spread of deadly diseases such as, poliomyelitis, dysentery,
shigellosis, typhoid, hepatitis A, cholera, diarrhoea (Policy and practice of
water supply in Nigeria, 2007). Annually, unsafe water, alongside poor sanitation, kill nearly 1.6 million
children under 5 years which is over eight times the number of people who died
as a result of Asian Tsunamis in 2004 (UNICEF 2006) and most of this occur in
poor and economically disadvantaged countries of the world.
The Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY)
lost to food and water borne diarrhoea in Africa region was 4.1 per 1000
globally as compared to 5.7-7.1 per 1000 in Africa (WHO, 2009). Diarrhoea
diseases and worm infestations account for 10% of the total disease burden in
developing / economically disadvantaged countries (Park, 2005) . Federal Ministry of Health’s data
shows that diarrhoea is second to malaria as a disease of high prevalence. It
accounts for 16% of under 5 years mortality. Worm infestation is still having
its toll on the people especially the vulnerable (children and women).
Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni
are the causes of schistosomiasis with prevalence in communities that patronize
ponds and other artificial reservoirs where snails breed. The incidence in
different parts of the country ranges from 10-18% in Gumau, Bauchi State, 50.4%
in Admin community, Cross River State to 71.8% in Oyan reservoir area, Ogun
State. Generally, women and children are susceptible to water related diseases;
this might be related to the fact that children require twice the volume of
water taken by adults per day and women consume 20% more than men which means, women
and children are 20% and 100% respectively more exposed than men. In the 1980s,
government of Nigeria made concerted effort to attain the target of UN
International sanitation and drinking water Supply which was to provide potable
water for all by the year 1990. Although Nigeria fell short of the target, it
was able to provide 25 litres and 60 litres of potable to rural and urban
dwellers respectively. A national sanitation and water supply policy was
adopted in January, 2000. The policy made sanitation and adequate water supply a
right of all Nigerians (Park, 2005; Policy and practice of water supply in
Nigeria, 2007). On16th April, 2007, Nigerian Standard of safe drinking Water
Quality was submitted to the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and was
accordingly approved (SON, 2007).
Although a lot has been done to increase
access to improved source of drinking water, more still need to be done in
terms of translating policy to action, monitoring water quality regularly in
order to nip any outbreak in the bud, monitoring and controlling activities of
water vendors and “pure water” producers to ensure safety of their products.
In addition to these, concerted efforts are
expected to maintain present equipment and upgrade them when necessary to cope
with teeming and growing population of the nation.
1.2 STATEMENT
OF PROBLEM
Globalization and population growth have
placed enormous demand on industry and commerce, it has also affected the
availability and quality of consumable water (United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992).
•
In spite of all the different efforts made in curbing water and
sanitation issues over the decade, the water situation in Nigeria appears to be
deteriorating.
•
Water coverage rate in Nigeria is amongst the lowest in the world
(Olabisi ,2008).
•
These points to the fact that Nigeria is not on the track to achieving
Millennium Development Goal except it redoubles its effort and intensifies the
present reforms on water and sanitation.
•
A lot of researches have been made in this field of study but none have
been able to critically evaluate the parasitic and water quality assessment of
at least six water sources in rural communities like Nkwo-egwu.
•
There is need therefore to carry out
an investigation on parasitic and quality assessment of drinking water
sources at Nkwo-egwu community.
1.3 JUSTIFICATIONS FOR THE STUDY.
•
The quality and quantity of drinking water
supply to human population is on the decline (Bauwer, 2003).
•
However, Previous studies on the quality of safe
drinking water in various parts of Nigeria revealed high contamination in the
various samples of drinking water.
•
While
studies in various parts of Nigeria have documented the failure of the water
supply to meet minimum WHO quality standards, no similar study has been
conducted at Nkwo-egwu community in
Umuahia North L.G.A, Abia-state, Nigeria.
•
This study will aim at providing empirical
assessment of the quality of water available to community in relation to the
parasitic content.
1.4 AIM
AND OBJECTIVES
a)
Aim
Aim
of the study is to assess the parasitic and quality of safe drinking water
sources at Nkwo-egwu community, Umuahia
north L.G.A., Abia State.
b) Specific objectives are
1. To determine the parasites of different water
sources at Nkwo-egwu community.
2. To assess the physico-chemical qualities of
the drinking water from the different sources and to compare the
physico-chemical characteristics with Standard Organization of Nigeria and WHO.
3. To compare the relationship between
physico-chemical parameters and waterborne parasites.
To obtain information on the respondent’s
socio-demographic data and their source(s) of drinking water, perception on the
quality, supply of safe drinking water and storage methods using the
questionnaire.
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