ABSTRACT
Three experiments which lasted for 9 months were conducted to determine the effect of aqueous Moringa oleifera leaf and seed extracts on the growth performance, reproductive physiology of 72 local turkeys. Experiment one comprising 36 male local turkeys aged 8 weeks were evaluated for growth performance, blood parameters, semen traits, hormonal assay (testosterone) as well as histology of the testes, kidneys and lungs in a completely randomized design (CRD). Moringa oleifera leaf and seed extracts were administered via drinking water in T1 (0), T2 (1g seed alone), T3 (0.5g seed and 0.5g leaf) and T4 (1g leaf alone) in 1000ml of water. Experiment two evaluated the effect of semen collected from male turkeys under two thermal conditions using 3 different extenders in a 2x3x4 factorial experiment in CRD. The extender A (standard extender), extender B (12.5ml seed and 12.5ml leaf extracts with 75ml of standard extender) while extender C (25ml seed and 25ml leaf extracts with 50mls of standard extender). The semen was diluted in the ratio of 1:5 where progressive motility was examined. Experiment three was conducted with 36 female local turkeys. The Morniga was administered as in experiment one in a CRD experiment. In the male turkeys, Moringa extracts significantly (P<0.05) increased the total weight gain (T4 5503g, T2 5407g, T3 5307g) than T1 (5103g). There were significant increases (P<0.05) in the feed efficiency (T1 4.21, T2 3.99, T3 3.98 and T4 3.9) with the Moringa administration. The white blood cell (x103mm3) was highest (P<0.05) in T1 (32.133) then T2 (30.00), T3 (27.90) and T4 (24.80).The PCV (%), Red blood cell (RBC), MCV, MCH, MCHC and Hb were all (P> 0.05) similar among the treatment groups. All the biochemical parameters evaluated differed significantly (P< 0.05) among the treatments except calcium. The TP, albumin, cholesterol, bilirubin, urea, and AST were higher among the Moringa administered groups. The semen consistency was higher (P < 0.05) in T4 (3.00) and T1 (3.00) when compared with T2 (2.33) and T3 (2.00). Progressive motility (T4 92.86, T2 90.83, T3 82.93, T1 74.4) %, viable spermatozoa (T4 96.93, T2 90.83, T3 82.933 and T1 87.67) % and semen pH were higher among the Moringa administered groups. Testosterone level increased in the Moringa administered groups (T4 = 3.33, T3 = 0.39, T2 0.27 and T1 =0.2 ng/ml. Histology of the testes was not adversely affected by Moringa but the lungs and kidney were. The extender effect, the thermic effect, as well as the Moringa administration did not have significant effect on the progressive motility of the sperm cells. Although there were significant improvement on the sub group effect on the male turkeys administered the Moringa extract under 470c thermic condition (T1 55.43%, T2 71.43%, T3 57.92% and T4 75.13%). In the females, the weight gain (T4 3.182, T2 2.89, T3 2.83 and T1 2.8) kg as well as feed efficiency all increased with the administration of Moringa extracts. The Hb, MCH and MCHC differed significantly (P< 0.05). The serum urea and creatinine levels were significantly (P < 0.05) higher (T4 20.427, T3 19.37, T2 17.38, T1 14.49) mg/dl and T4 0.74, T3 0.75, T2 0.71, T1 0.61 mg/dl respectively among the Moringa administer groups, while TP, AST and calcium were lower (P<0.05). Egg internal parameters were not significantly affected. Estradiol and Progesterone were lower (P<0.05) among the Moringa groups. The sensory evaluation was improved by Moringa extracts. The study showed that Moringa leaf and seed extracts can be used to improve growth, reproduction, immunity, as well as blood traits of local turkeys.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table
of Contents vi
List
of Tables xii
List
of Figures xiv
List
of Plates xv
Abstract xvi
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Information 1
1.2
Statement of Problem 3
1.3
Objective of the Study 5
1.4
Justification 6
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
The Turkeys 7
2.1.1
Turkey production – A Nigerian
situation 7
2.1.2
Nutritional needs and values of turkeys 8
2.2
The Reproductive Physiology of Male Turkey 11
2.2.1
Sexual behaviour in turkeys 11
2.2.2 Spermatogenesis and sperm maturation in
turkeys 12
2.2.3
Semen production in male turkeys and
factors affecting it 13
2.3
Semen Collection in Turkey Industry 17
2.3.1 Process and procedure of AI in turkeys 18
2.3.2 Percussions
to be taken while conducting AI 19
2.4 Semen
Storage 19
2.4.1 Factors affecting the storability of semen 20
2.5 Semen
Extension in Poultry Industry 22
2.6 Turkey
semen: it’s physical and chemical composition 23
2.7 Turkey
Semen Evaluation 25
2.7.1 Semen colour 25
2.7.2 Sperm concentration 25
2.7.3 Semen volume 26
2.7.4 Sperm motility 27
2.7.5 Semen pH 29
2.7.6 Sperm morphological evaluation 30
2.8 Turkey
Testicular Morphometry, Gonadal and Extra -gonadal Parameters 31
2.9 The
Physiology of Female Turkey Reproductive System 32
2.9.1 The turkey ovaries and oviduct 32
2.9.2 The oviduct 33
2.9.3 The egg of Turkeys 34
2.9.4 The process of egg formation 36
2.9.5 Fertility and hatchability of egg 37
2.9.6 Age of turkeys 39
2.9.7 Body weight of the turkey hen 39
2.9.8
Nutrition 40
2.9.9
Disease incidence 40
2.9.10 Mating style 41
2.9.11 Infertility syndrome 41
2.9.12 Stress and stressors 42
2.9.13 Quality and dosage of inseminated semen 42
2.9.14 Insemination time 43
2.9.15 Day length/photoperiodism 43
2.10 Factors
that Affect Hatchability of Turkey Eggs 43
2.10.1 The environment 44
2.10.2 Storage of eggs 44
2.10.3 Nutrition 45
2.10.4 The Egg 45
2.10.5 Genetic factors 46
2.11 Haematological
Studies in Avian Species 46
2.11.1 Haemoglobin (Hb) 47
2.11.2 Packed Cell Volume (PCV) 48
2.11.3 The Red Blood Cell (RBC) 49
2.11.4 The white blood cells (Leucocytes) 51
2.12 Serum
biochemical parameters 55
2.12.1 The total protein in turkeys 55
2.12.2 Serum Electrolytes 57
2.12.3 Serum enzymes 58
2.12.4 Urea 60
2.12.5 Bilirubin 61
2.13 Hormonal
Activities in Turkeys 61
2.14 Growth
in Turkeys 63
2.14.1 Body weight as a parameter for measuring growth 64
2.14.2 Carcass evaluation 65
2.14.3 Vicerosomatic
index 66
2.15 The
Plant Moringa oleifera 67
2.15.1 Origin and distribution 67
2.15.2 Phytochemical and therapeutic properties of Moringa oleifera 68
2.15.3 Nutritional
composition of Moringa leaf and seed 68
2.15.4 Uses of Moringa oleifera
in animal Agriculture 70
2.16 Sensory
Evaluation 74
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experiment
One 76
3.1.1 Location
and site of the experiment 76
3.1.2 Collection and identification of experimental material 76
3.1.3 Preparation
and administration of Moringa oleifera leaves
and seeds
extracts 76
3.1.4 Experimental
Animals and their management 77
3.1.5 Experimental
Design 78
3.1.6 Growth
Performance 79
3.1.7 Carcass
Evaluation 80
3.1.8 Haematology
and Serum Biochemistry 80
3.1.9 Histological
Studies 81
3.1.10 Hormonal Assay (Testosterone) 82
3.1.11 Semen Collection and Evaluation 83
3.1.12 Data Analysis 88
3.2 Experiment
Two 88
3.2.1 Location
and site of the experiment 88
3.2.2 Experimental
Materials 88
3.2.3 Experimental
animals and their management 89
3.2.4 Experimental
Design 89
3.2.5 Semen
Collection and Evaluation 90
3.2.6 Data Analysis 91
3.3 Experiment
Three 91
3.3.1 Location
and Site of the Experiment 91
3.3.2 Experimental
materials 91
3.3.3 Experimental
Animals and their Management 91
3.3.4 Experimental
Design 92
3.3.5 Growth
Performance Measurement 93
3.3.6 Carcass
Evaluation 93
3.3.7 Haematology
and Serum Biochemistry 94
3.3.8 Hormonal
Assay 95
3.3.9 Fertility and Hatchability Evaluation 95
3.3.10 Sensory evaluation on female
turkey 99
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSION
4.1 Experiment
One: growth performance reproductive physiology of male turkeys
administered aqueous extracts of Moringa oleifera leaves and seeds 100
4.1.1 Growth
performance 100
4.1.2 Viscreosomatic
index of male turkeys administered aqueous Moringa leaf
and
seed extracts 102
4.1.3 Carcass
parts parameters of male turkeys 104
4.1.4 Haematological parameters of male Turkeys 105
4.1.5 White
blood cell differentials for male turkeys 108
4.1.6
Mean values of the serum biochemical
parameters of male turkeys
administered
aqueous extracts of Moringa leaves
and seeds 110
4.1.7
Reproductive qualities of male turkeys
administered Moringa seed and
leaf
extracts 117
4.1.8 Histology
of male turkey testis administered Moringa leaves and seed
extracts 123
4.1.9 Internal organ kidney histology of male turkeys administered Moringa
extracts 125
4.1.10 Lungs histology of male turkeys administered
aqueous Moringa leaf and
seed
extracts 127
4.2 Experiment
Two: Thermic
Stress Effects Of Moringa Oleifera Leaf
And Seed Extracts Extender On Male Turkeys Administered Moringa Leaf And Seed Extracts. 129
4.3 Experiment
Three 131
4.3.1 Growth
performance, reproductive physiology of female turkeys
administered
Moringa leaf and seed extracts 131
4.3.2 Organ
weights in female turkeys 133
4.3.3 Physiology
of the females 134
4.3.4 The
female local turkey reproductive parameters 141
4.3.5 Histology of the liver samples of female
turkeys administered Moringa
oleifera leaves and seeds
extracts 148
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 150
5.2 Recommendations 151
References
LIST OF TABLES
Page
2.1 The
nutritional requirements of turkeys 9
2.2 The
nutritional value of turkey meat per 100g 10
2.3 The
various nutrient levels poultry manure 11
2.4 Chemical
metabolites in turkey semen 24
2.5 Mean
values of semen volume of toms subjected to three (3) frequencies of
semen collection 27
2.6 Sperm
motility (%) of toms subjected to various frequencies of sperm
collection 29
2.7 Haematological
and serum biochemical values found in Poultry by different
authors 54
2.8 Cut
organ weight of local turkey poults fed indomie waste 66
2.9 The
comparative proximate composition of various parts of Moringa plant 69
2.10 Amino
Acid Profile of Moringa oleifera
leaves (per 100g) 70
3.1 Feed
Formula for the Experimental Diet 78
3.2 Properties,
scores allocated and interpretation for semen colour 83
3.3 Properties
and score collected for semen consistency 84
3.4 Sensory
evaluation of meat 99
4.1.1 Mean
values of growth parameters measured in male turkeys administered
aqueous extracts
of Moringa leaves and seeds 100
4.1.2 The
mean values of viscreosomatic index of male turkeys administered
aqueous Moringa leaf and seed extracts 102
4.1.3 Mean
values of carcass parameters of male turkeys administered Moringa
leaf and seed extracts 104
4. 1.4 Mean
values of the haematological parameters of male turkeys administered
aqueous extracts
of Moringa leaves and seeds 105
4.1.5 Mean
values of male turkey blood cell count parameter 108
4.1.6 Mean Values of
Serum Biochemistry of Male Turkeys administered
aqueous
extracts of Moringa leaves and seeds 110
4.1.7 Mean
Values of Semen Traits of Male Turkeys 117
4.1.8 Mean
values of epidymal dimensions of male turkeys administered aqueous
extracts of Moringa leaves and seeds 119
4.1.9 Testicular
Indices of Male Turkeys administered aqueous extracts of Moringa
leaves and seeds 121
4.1.10 Hormonal
Levels of Male Turkeys 122
4.2.1 Effect
of temperature, extender and extracts on motility of sperm cells 129
4.3.1 Mean
values of growth performance of female turkeys administered Moringa
leaf and seed extracts 131
4.3.2 Mean
values of organ weights in female turkeys administered Moringa leaf
and seed extracts 133
4.3.3 Mean
Blood Haematogical Parameters of female Turkeys 134
4.3.4 Mean
differential Cell Values of female Turkeys 136
4.3.5 Serum
Biochemical Parameters of female Turkeys 137
4.3.6 Mean
Values of Reproductive Indices of female Turkeys 141
4.3.7 Mean
Values of external Egg parameters of female Turkeys 142
4.3.8 Mean
Values of Internal Egg parameters of female Turkeys 143
4.3.9 Mean
Values of Egg Productivity of female Turkeys 145
4.3.10 Mean
Hormonal Values of female Turkeys 146
4.3.11 Mean
Values of Sensory Evaluation of female Turkey Meat 147
LIST
OF FIGURES
Page
4.3.1 Weekly egg lay 144
LIST
OF PLATES
1 Testis
of male turkey administered 0g of Moringa
(T1 testis) 123
2 Testis of male turkey administered 1g of
Moringa seed (T2 testis) 123
3
Testis of male turkey administered 0.5g of
seed and 0.5g of leaf of Moringa
(T3 testis) 123
4
Testis of male turkey
administered 1g of Moringa leaf (T4
testis) 123
5 Kidney
of male turkey administered 0g of Moringa
(T1 kidney) 125
6 Kidney of male turkey administered 1g of
Moringa seed (T2 kidney) 125
7
Kidney of male turkey
administered 0.5g of seed and 0.5g of leaf of
Moringa
(T3 kidney) 125
8
Kidney of male turkey
administered 1g of Moringa leaf (T4
kidney) 125
9 Lung
of male turkey administered 0g of Moringa
(T1 lung) 127
10 Lung of male turkey administered 1g of Moringa seed (T2 lung) 127
11 Lung of male turkey administered 0.5g of
seed and 0.5g of leaf of Moringa
(T3 lung) 127
12
Lung of male turkey administered 1g
of Moringa leaf (T4 lung) 127
13 Liver
of female turkey administered 0g of Moringa
(T1 liver) 148
14 Liver of female turkey administered 1g of Moringa seed (T2 liver) 148
15 Liver of female turkey administered 0.5g
of seed and 0.5g of leaf of Moringa
(T3 liver) 148
16
Liver of female turkey administered
1g of Moringa leaf (T4
liver) 148
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Nigerians
consume about 3.24g of animal protein per person per day which is far lower
than the FAO (1990) recommended value of 34g (Omojole and Adeshinwa, 2007). This fact is in line with the report of Boland
et al. (2013) who reported that an
average Nigerian consumes only 9grams of animal protein per day when compared
with over 50grams by the Europeans and North Americans. This low consumption of
animal protein has been attributed to factors such as low production of animals
and animal products. This is implicated in the high cost of feed which is about
60-80% of the total production cost (Esonu, 2000 and Urom et al., 2018). Considering the present economic situation in
Nigeria, there is a clarion call to improve animal agricultural sector, in
order to achieve animal protein sufficiency and also boost the economy. Poultry
production is one of the ways to drive the economy to a greater height, as well
as achieve protein sufficiency. Currently, the poultry industry is once again
experiencing some boost due to several economic and agricultural policies and
reforms which include the removal of import duties on poultry products (Fasina et al., 2007) and the ban on the importation
of processed poultry meat.
Beside
these, poultry production yields quick return on investment because they are
efficient feed converters when compared to other livestock (Oke et al., 2016). Notwithstanding this current
growth in the industry, some species of poultry are still lagging behind.
Poultry population in Nigeria is estimated at 104.3million, comprising 72.4
million chickens, 11.8million ducks, 4.7 million fowl, 15.2million pigeon and
0.2million turkey (FDLPCS, 1992). Turkey production has not been as successful
as chicken production in the country due to their poor reproductive atribute.
Turkeys
are fast becoming endangered. Their
production in Nigeria is largely on a backyard small scale level.
Turkey
production on a large scale requires efficient and effective reproductive
tract. Low level of turkey production has been attributed to low fertility and
poor hatchability as a result of poor semen quality due to oxidative stress
(Bucak- Louis et al., 2013) among
other factors. These peculiar reasons adversely affect the rate of
commercializing turkey production in Nigeria. According to FAOSTAT (2013) the
population of local turkey in Nigeria as at 2011 was at most 1.05 million when
compared to other poultry species like chicken where meat and egg production
stood at 7,000,000 metric tons. Local turkey toms can weigh as high as 7.2kg
and hens 3.6kg at 16weeks (Nigerian Finder, 2017) Turkey meat is generally
accepted in Nigeria with no myth or taboo associated with it. Nutritionally, it
is rich in iron, selenium, B complex vitamins, potassium, zinc and even
phosphorous (Whittemore, 2007). Using fertility drugs which are high priced
with some adverse effects still does not ameliorate the problems associated
with local turkey production. Most of these reproductive problems like, body
size variation, rich polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) which is usually
associated with avian spermatozoa that makes the cells vulnerable to lipid
peroxidation, during artifical insemination (Donoghue and Donoghue, 1997) also
affects turkeys. These things pose a serious threat to local turkey production
in the country.
Antioxidant like citric acid, vitamin E and
ascorbic acid has been found to increase seminal plasma and reduce the risk
associated with certain deleterious free radicals on sperm fertilizing ability
(Chanda and Dave, 2009). Antioxidant properties of ascorbic acid for example
are essential in the maintenance of the membrane and genetic integrity of sperm
cells by preventing oxidative damage to the sperm DNA (Dawson et al., (1990). These antioxidants
(vitamin E and ascorbic acid) are mostly found in plant materials like Moringa oleifera (Compaore et al., 2011).
Moringa oleifera
plant is from the family of moringacea
a shrub from North West India, naturalized
in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world (Prince, 2002). It is rich in
protein, carbohydrate, fat and oil (Aja et
al., 2013). Moringa is a good
source of minerals (phosphorous, chloride and calcium) and vitamins C (Abdukarim
et al. 2007). It is also rich in
antioxidant properties like lutein, alphaorotine, beta-carotene, xanthine and chlorophyll
(Fuglie, 1999). Muanya (2017) has reported that Moringa fruits can be used to boost sperm count in men thus
increasing their chances of fertilizing eggs. Serrano-Vega et al, (2008) used it to increase sperm count in male mice, when 1%
concentration of Moringa ethanoic
leaf extract was administered. Cajuday and Pocsidio (2010) also observed that
mice given high and medium doses of the plant extract had enhanced spermatogenesis.
Moringa (leaves) have also been used
in broiler chicks diets, and there were improvements in the general performance
of the broiler birds (Abdulsalam et al.,
2015). Its effect has also been checked in rabbit does by Adeyemi et al., (2014)
and in weaning pigs by Oliver et al.,
(2015).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
For
some time now, many fertility enhancers like hormone replacement therapies
(HRT) are being used to improve the reproductive efficiencies of poultry. Most
of these therapies have some detrimental effects on the animals, for instance,
androgen therapy affects the process of spermatogenesis (Liu et al., 2011). SteinKampf and Malizia
(2011) opined that spermatogenesis in male species is dependent on the
production of testosterone from the Legdig cells and males on exogenous
testosterone treatment to enhance fertility often results in loss of gonadal
functions.
The
high cost of these fertility enhancers and the technicalities involved in their
use for improving animal reproductive efficiency reduce their usage by farmers
and breeders. In most third world countries, lack of reliable method for short
term semen storage has seriously reduced profitability of animal farming, due
to insufficient and inefficient storage systems for semen.
Sexual
dimorphism among male and female turkeys also poses serious threats that make
commercial turkey farms to rely solely on artificial insemination to achieve better
fertility. This, most Nigerian farmers cannot afford talk less of handling the
technicalities involved. The matting parttern involved in the natural mating
process of turkey toms were naturally clumsy (during mating), which makes them
to release little or no semen into the vulva of turkey hens.
According
to Donoghue and Donogbue, (1997) avian semen has been found to be rich in PUFA
and this puts them under pressure of oxidative stress. This affects turkeys
more than chickens, thus making turkey sperm more vulnerable to peroxidation
due to activity of antioxidant enzymes (Aitken, 1995). The abundance of PUFA in
avian semen also reduces the general fertility and hatchability of turkey eggs.
Anti-oxidant and vitamin E have been found to protect sperm cells from peroxidation,
this they do by mopping up the oxygen species found within the system (Nwanjo,
2006).
Moringa oleifera
plants are laden with most chemicals like phenols substances, antioxidants,
vitamins and minerals found in most fertility enhancers. The plant is locally
and readily available. Therefore using the extracts in the improvement of
turkey’s reproductiveattributes like, short term semen storage, egg quality and
hatchability as well as to examine if it has any adverse effects on the
internal organ histology and blood is yet to be ascertained.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The
objective of the study were to:
1. determine
the growth rate of male and female turkey administered Moringa leaf and seed extracts;
2. evaluate
the effects of these extracts on the semen characteristics of male turkeys;
3. evaluate
their effects on testicular morphometry, gonadal and extra gonadal sperm
reserves of male turkeys;
4. evaluate
the effects of the extracts on blood (haemotology) and serum biochemistry of
male and female turkeys;
5. evaluate
their effects on the histology of the kidney, lungs and testes;
6. determine
the effect on principal sex hormones (testosterone in the males and estrogen
and progesterone hormones in the females)
7. examine
the potentials of these extracts as short term semen extender under different
temperature conditions;
8. evaluate
the influence of these exatracts on external and internal traits of eggs laid
by the turkey hens; and
9. determine
their effects on the fertility and hatchability of the eggs.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION
The
need to ensure continuous supply of meat to cushion the effect of protein food
shortages among the soaring population is advocated. Turkey meat is a good
source of protein generally accepted by the Nigeria populace. Among poultry
species, it is highly endangered because of its poor reproductive attributes.
Improving and maintaining enhanced turkey breeds require good quality semen and
proper artificial insemination methods. Artificial insemination is not yet
widely practiced in Nigerian turkey industry due to lack of knowledge and high
cost of extenders. To bridge this gap, Moringa
has been found to have a lot of nutrients, vitamins, mineral, photochemical properties
(Fahey, 2008) as well as antioxidants (Nickon et al., 2003) which are known to improve both growth (Zaneb et al., 2017) and reproductive (Odeyinka
et al., 2016) efficiencies. The plant
is well consumed by humans as well. It therefore becomes imperative to test the
effect of Moringa extracts on growth
and reproductive performance of both male and female local turkeys.
This
trial if positive will bring to the limelight a veritable tool for developing,
improving and commercializing turkey industry to meet up with the breeders and
farmers desire for higher quality males
and females and as such, satisfying
protein food shortages.
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