ABSTRACT
Functional, chemical and consumer acceptability of amala made from unripe plantain (Musa Paradisiaca) and cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) were carried out in this study. Unripe plantain and cocoyam flour were obtained from Orie-ugba, Umuahia, Abia State. The unripe plantain was washed severally with clean water, peeled, sliced to about 5 mm thin and dried in an oven for 24 hours at 60 0 C. The cocoyam sample was given the same treatment although it was sliced to about 1 cm thickness using a manual kitchen slicer. The slices were transferred into a stainless pot, covered with water, and soaked for 6 hours. The soaked cocoyam was rewashed, then it was drained of its content and was blanched for 4 - 5 minutes. The slices were dried with oven dryer at 57 ± 3 o C before milling to powder form. Both flours were formulated into different proportions, 40:60, 50:50, and 60:40. A quantity of 100 g of plantain was used as control. The samples were evaluated for functional properties (bulk density, gelatinization capacity, swelling power, and water absorption), antinutritonal analysis (oxalate, tannin, alkaloids, phyate, and phenol), antioxidants (total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, total carotenoid content) and pH using standard methods. The results of the functional properties showed that bulk density ranged from 0.77 to 0.91 g/ml, gelatinization capacity ranged from 8 - 12, and swelling index ranged from 29.12 to 34.02 while water absorption capacity ranged from 1.29 to 3.64 g/ml. The pH values ranged from 5.88 to 6.75. Sample B had the highest flavonoid content of 49.75 mg while sample A had the least value (0.67 mg). The carotenoid content ranged from 0.73 to 48.82 µg. Sample B was significantly different (p<0.05) from other samples in terms of phenolics. Sample A had the least values of phytate, oxalate and phenolics when compared to other samples. Sample A was most preferred in terms of overall acceptability.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures ix
List of Plates xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Justification of the study 3
1.4 Objectives of the study 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Cocoyam 5
2.2 Origin and history of cocoyam 5
2.2.2 Botanical characteristics of cocoyam 6
2.3 Nutritional values of cocoyam 7
2.3.1 Leaf 9
2.3.2 Root 9
2.4 Economic importance of cocoyam 9
2.5 Processing of cocoyam 11
2.5.1 Utilization of cocoyam 12
2.5.2 Ecology and description of cocoyam 13
2.6 Plantain 14
2.6.1 Origin and Description 15
2.6.2 Health benefits of plantain 16
2.6.3 Effects of plantain peels on the environment 17
2.6.4 Distribution of plantain 17
2.7 Economic importance of plantain in Nigeria 18
2.7.1 Utilization of plantain 19
2.7.2 Processing of plantain 19
2.8 Amala 20
2.9 Antinutritional factors of cocoyam and plantain 21
2.9.1 Saponins 22
2.9.2 Phytate 23
2.9.3 Tannins 24
2.9.4 Alkaloids 25
2.9.5 Oxalate 25
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Procurement of raw materials 27
3.2 Sampling preparation 27
3.2.1 Processing of cocoyam into flour sample 27
3.2.2 Processing technique of unripe plantain flour sample 29
3.2.3 Production of Amala 31
3.3 Methods of Analysis 33
3.3.1 Functional properties 33
3.3.1.1 Determination of bulk density 33
3.3.1.2 Determination of swelling power 33
3.3.1.3 Determination of water absorption capacity 33
3.3.1.4 Determination of gelatinization capacity 34
3.4 Determination of pH 34
3.5 Antioxidant properties 34
3.5.1 Determination of total phenolic content 35
3.5.2 Determination of flavonoid content 35
3.5.3 Total carotenoid content 35
3.6 Antinutritional properties 36
3.6.1 Determination of Tannins 36
3.6.2 Determination of phytates 37
3.6.3 Determination of alkaloids 37
3.6.4 Determination of oxalate 38
3.6.5 Determination of phenol 39
3.7 Sensory evaluation 40
3.8 Experimental design 40
3.9 Statistical analysis 40
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Evaluation of the functional properties of the flour samples 42
4.2 Evaluation of the physical parameters of the flour samples 45
4.3 Evaluation of the antioxidant properties of the flour samples 47
4.4 Evaluation of the antinutritional properties of the flour samples 50
4.5 Evaluation of the sensory properties of the flour samples 53
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUCION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 56
5.2 Recommendation 56
5.3 Expected contributions to knowledge 56
REFERENCES 57
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Botanical classification of cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) 7
Table 2.2: Nutritional values of cocoyam 10
Table 3.1: Formulation of the flour blends for production of amala samples 31
Table 4.1: Functional evaluation of the flour samples 44
Table 4.2: pH value of the flour samples 46
Table 4.3: Antioxidant properties of the flour samples 49
Table 4.4: Antinutritional properties of the flour samples 52
Table 4.5: Sensory properties of the flour samples 55
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Flow chart for the processing of cocoyam tuber into flour 28
Figure 3.2: Flow chart for processing of unripe plantain into flour 30
Figure 3.3: Flow chart for production of amala from flour blends of cocoyam and unripe plantain 32
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Unripe plantain (Musa paradisiacal L.) 27
Plate 2: Cocoyam tubers 27
Plate 3: Plantain flour 31
Plate 4: Cocoyam flour 31
Plate 5: Amala made with 100 % plantain flour 41
Plate 6: Amala made with 40 % cocoyam flour, 60 % plantain flour 41
Plate 7: Amala made with 50 % plantain flour, 50 % cocoyam flour 41
Plate 8: Amala made with 100 % cocoyam flour 41
Plate 9: Amala made with 40% plantain flour, 60% cocoyam flour 41
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Amala is a generic term in Nigeria that is used to describe thick pastes prepared by stirring flour from yam, cocoyam, cassava or unripe plantain, in a boiling water to form smooth consistency (Fetuga et al., 2014). It is a popular starchy ethnic “fufu” like meal commonly eaten by ethnic Yoruba’s of South-Western Nigeria and it is increasingly consumed among non-ethnic Yoruba consumer in Nigeria and some other countries in the Western Coast of Nigeria (Idowu et al., 2014).
Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) is a staple root crop in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific (Temesgen and Retta, 2015). Cocoyam belongs to the Araceae family, Colocasia esculenta, otherwise known as taro is more popular in Nigeria than Xanthosoma sagittaifolium, also known as tannia (Ijioma et al., 2014). Among the root crops in Nigeria cocoyam ranks third in importance after cassava and yam, in terms of cultivation and consumption (Olayiwola et al., 2012). It is consumed in Nigerian homes either as boiled or cooked paste (amala), mostly during periods proceeding yam harvest, and this underscores its importance as a possible substitute for yam (Ajijola et al., 2003). Cocoyam contains about 2.0 grams of protein, 31 grams of carbohydrate, 1.0 grams of fibre, 20 milligram of calcium, among other nutritive and vitamins. Those on dietary prescription requiring low starchy food prefer cocoyam to cassava. Cocoyam is used as a source of food for man and livestock, cocoyam can be processed and consumed as fufu, soup thickener, roasted achicha, it can be sliced into chips and then dried; the dried chips can be rehydrated and made into porridge with vegetables, palm oil and oil bean.
Plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.) is an important staple crop, supplying up to 25 % of the carbohydrates for approximately 70 million people in humid zone of sub-Saharan Africa. The plant consists of long, overlapping leafstalks with a stem which is 1.22 to 6.10 metre high while the leaves grow to a length of 1.83 metre and 0.61 metre wide. The unripe plantain is used in folklore medicine for treating diarrhoea, dysentery, and intestinal lesions in ulcerative colitis, diabetes, uremia, nephritis, gout, hypertension and cardiac disease (Ghani, 2003). In Nigeria, it is very common to find diabetic patients consuming unripe plantain meal to reduce postprandial glucose level; this is because the propensity of individuals to develop diabetes and obesity is due to the increased consumption of carbohydrate rich foods with a high glycemic index (Willett et al., 2002; Foster et al., 2003). Plantains are good sources of plant phytochemicals (Ghani, 2003) which promotes health and well-being.
According to FAO (2009), over 2.3 million metric tons of plantains are produced in Nigeria annually; it is a starchy, less sweet variety of banana that can be used either ripe or unripe. They are invaluable source of carbohydrate, comparable in nutritive value to yam, cocoyam or potato and are useful as a variant on the usual staple foods. It is consumed mainly in Nigeria as snacks in form of chips, dodo, ikire, etc.
Plantain can be consumed as ripe or unripe in several forms; it can be boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, other products derived from plantain could be in form of chips and flour (Nwokocha and Williams, 2009).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Amala is commonly consumed in the Western part of Nigeria, since the product is exclusively obtained from yam or cassava flours, there is need to explore other sources such as cocoyam and plantain in order to enhance its nutritional value and utilization diversity. Consumers’ awareness of the need to eat high quality and healthy food known as functional foods, that is, foods which contain ingredients that provide additional health benefits beyond the basic nutritional requirement is increasing (Ndife and Abbo, 2009). Therefore, a reasonable and nutrient - dense amala can be produced using cocoyam fortified with unripe plantain making the products of this work a great significance in solving the problem of malnutrition in this country because, the fortification of cocoyam flour with unripe plantain flour will improve the nutritional quality of the flour being used for amala. Plantain and cocoyam contains a low glycemic index value, so they are more slowly digested, absorbed and metabolized and cause a lower and slower rise in blood glucose and are consumable by diabetic patients. Information is however scanty on the performance of cocoyam-plantain flour blends in amala.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Plantain is a popular dietary staple due to its versatility and good nutritional value; it is rich in minerals including potassium. Plantain is a good source of phytochemical likewise cocoyam.
Amala is exclusively obtained from cassava and yam. Several researchers have produced amala from cassava root and its peel, as well as yam tubers and their peel but none is with plantain in combination with cocoyam. This study will close this gap in the knowledge.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.4.1 General Objective
The main objective was therefore, to evaluate the functional properties, chemical properties and consumers’ acceptability of amala produced from unripe plantain and cocoyam.
The specific objectives of this work are;
i. To produce cocoyam and plantain flour blends.
ii. To determine the functional properties of the flour blends of cocoyam and plantain.
iii. To evaluate the antioxidants properties of flour blends from cocoyam and plantain.
iv. To determine the antinutritional properties of flour blends from cocoyam and plantain.
v. To produce amala from flour blends of plantain and cocoyam.
vi. To evaluate the consumer’s acceptability of amala samples
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