ABSTRACT
This work investigates the phytochemical analysis, diuretic and anti-inflammatory properties of ethanol leaf extract of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa. Wistar rat model was used in testing the anti-inflammatory and diuretic activities of the two plants. The leaves of the plants were collected, sun-dried, milled and stored for analysis. Some of the milled samples were soaked in ethanol for 48 hours after which it was filtered and the filtrate was subsequently evaporated to dryness and stored for further use. A total of 56 Wistar rats were used for this study. They were grouped into two major groups: diuretic and anti-inflammatory groups. Phytochemical screening (quantitative and qualitative), proximate and mineral compositions screening were done using standard procedures of analysis. Phytochemical results show that the plant, P. aquilinum has significant (p<0.05) concentrations of total phenolics (66628.50 ± 564.79), carbohydrates (4108.24 ± 211.44) and reducing sugars (753.29 ± 22.27) when compared with S. verucosa viz: 22806.45 ± 237.49, 1302.11 ± 23.18 and 596.54 ± 13.63, respectively, while S. verucosa showed significant (p<0.05) concentrations of terpenoids (967.23 ± 9.85), steroids (64.21 ± 15.95) and flavonoids (3058.13 ± 29.47) when compared with P. aquilinum viz: 749.91 ± 6.08, 19.12 ± 0.21 and 944.38 ± 2.25, respectively. Also, anti-inflammatory study indicated that the result of C-reactive protein had a non-significant (p>0.05) and significant (p<0.05) dose dependent decrease when the groups administered low (2.66 ± 0.18) and high (2.03 ± 0.26) doses, respectively of S. verucosa are compared with the inflammation (no treatment) group (2.58 ± 0.03). The groups administered low (2.54 ± 0.07) and high (2.15 ± 0.06) doses of P. aquilinum show significant (p<0.05) decrease when compared with the no treatment group. The result of Nitric oxide shows that there is a non-significant (p>0.05) difference when the treated groups are compared with the normal control as well as the non-treated group, while the group treated with low dose of S. verucosa (25.14 ± 0.33) shows a significant (p<0.05) increase when compared with all the groups, but non-treated group. Lactate dehydrogenase result shows that there is a non-significant (p>0.05) difference when the groups treated with ethanol extracts of the plants are compared with the normal control and other control groups. In diuretic activity, results of sodium, chloride and potassium in both urine and faeces samples indicate that the test groups administered the different extracts showed a significant decrease when compared with the positive control, the bicarbonate concentration in both specimens was of no significant difference when compared with the positive control. Therefore, this thesis indicates that the plants, P. aquilinum and S. verucosa have some medicinal and nutritional benefits.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
Page ii
Declaration iii
Certification
iv
Acknowledgements v
Table
of Contents vi
List
of Tables viii
List
of Figures ix
List
of Plates x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement
of Problem 2
1.3 Justification
of the Study 3
1.4 Aim
of Study 4
1.5 Objective
of Study 4
CHAPTER
2
LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 The Phyto-Medicinal Chemistry of Plants 5
2.2 Mineral
Composition of Plants 11
2.3 Proximate
Composition of Plants 15
2.4 Anti-Inflammatory
Activities of Medicinal Plants 15
2.5 Diuretic Activity of Plants 19
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1
Collection and Identification of Plant
Materials 22
3.2
Processing 24
3.3 Preparation of Extracts 25
3.4 Phytochemical Screening of Extracts 25
3.4.1 Qualitative phytochemical Analysis of
Extracts 25
3.4.2 Quantitative Phytochemical Analysis of
Extracts 28
3.5 Proximate Analysis of the Plants 31
3.6 Mineral
Analysis of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa 36
3.7 Animal Source and Grouping 38
3.8 Sample Collection 40
3.9 Anti-Inflammatory Test 41
3.10 Diuretic Test 42
3.11 Statistical Analysis 44
CHAPTER
4
RESULT
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results 44
4.2 Discussions 58
CHAPTER
5
CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 65
5.2 Recommendations 65
References 66
Appendix 85
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Qualitative
analysis of ethanol leaf extracts of P. aquilinum and
S. verucosa 44
Table 4.2 Quantitative analysis of ethanol leaf
extracts of P. aquilinum and
S.
verucosa 45
Table
4.3 Proximate
composition of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and
S.
verucosa 46
Table
4.4 Mineral
composition of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa 47
Table 4.5 Anti-inflammatory activity of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa 49
Table 4.6 Diuretic activity of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa 53
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 4.1: Effects
of ethanol Leaf extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa on
Serum C - reactive protein
concentration in Wistar rats. 49
Fig4.2: Effects
of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum S. verucosa and on
Serum Nitric Oxide
concentration in Wistar rats. 50
Fig. 4.3: Effects
of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa on
Serum lactate dehydrogenase
activity in Wistar rats. 51
Fig. 4.4: Effects of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa on
Serum
Sodium ion concentration in Wistar rats. 54
Fig. 4.5: Effects of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa on
Serum
Chloride ion concentration in Wistar rats 55
Fig. 4.6: Effects of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa on
Serum
Bicarbonate ion concentration in Wistar rats 56
Fig. 4.7 Effects of ethanol extracts of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa on
Serum Potassium
ion concentration in Wistar rats 57
LIST OF PLATES
Plate
1: Freshly collected leaves of Pteridium aquilinum 22
Plate
2: Freshly collected leaves of Scleria verucosa 23
Plate
3a: Blended leaves of Pteridium aquilinum 24
Plate
3b: Blended leaves of Scleria verucosa 24
Plate 4a: Sacrificing the Wistar
Rats for Sample collection 40
Plate 4b: Collection of Samples from the
sacrificed Wistar Rats 40
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY
The high usage of plant extracts in
pharmaceutical industries makes the study of medicinal plants very important
(Nostro et al., 2000). The acceptance
of herbal medicine as an alternative means of healthcare and the incessant
failure of treatment gave room for medicinal plant research (Hammer et al., 1999).
Pteridium
aquilinum (Bracken Fern) is a plant under the phylum
pteridophyta. Ferns and their likes consist of about 250 genera and 12000
species. The plants possess xylem and phloem which make them vascular plants.
They have stems and roots like other vascularized plants (Chapman, 2010; John et al., 2012). P. aquilinum is commonly called bracken. It is a fern-like herb
which belongs to the family Pteridaceae.
It is a vascular plant with alternating generations of both sporophyte and
gametophyte. It has bipinnate leaf structure. P. aquilinum has a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring in both wet
and dry places. (Clapham et al.,
1968)
Ferns possess different kinds of
phytochemicals which can be beneficial to the health of mankind. Some of these
phytochemicals act as antioxidants, antitoxins, anti-inflammatory and diuretics
(Hassan et al., 2007; Awe and Amobi,
2015).
In the recent times, the
bioactivities of ferns were analysed and they were reported to possess
antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. The antioxidant activity is the most
essential for human health (Chen et al.,
2007; Ding et al., 2008). Scleriaverucosa commonly known as sedge
is a plant which belongs to the family Cyperaceae.
It is a monocotyledonous flowering plant which specifically resembles grasses.
The leaves are greenish and bladed (Burkil, 1985).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Since many years of existence of the mankind,
many diseases abound. Most of these diseases are caused by the virulence of
pathogenic micro-organisms while some arise due to physiological and
environmental factors. As many diseases of human abound in the universe, so do
green plants which undoubtedly possess the necessary phytochemicals that can
fight these diseases of mankind.
However, the failure of man to
identify these medicinal plants and their associated phytochemical constituents
has continued to fester the virulence of these diseases on the human race. These
varying diseases of human constitute serious issues and challenges to our
helpless society and so need to be confronted via medicinal plants researches
geared towards development of new drugs. Today, it is pathetic to behold the
high prevalence of many health challenges that were non-issues during the olden
days. These diseases have become rampant in our present society.
Lower plants like Bracken Fern (Pteridium aquilium) and Sedge (Scleria verucosa) abound in our
environment. Despite the abundance of the lower plants enough researches have
not been carried out to investigate their medical potentials like the higher
plants. This challenge gave room for this research work. In a bid to find a
solution to the dangers posed by many recurring diseases of man, Bracken ferns
(P. aquilinum) and Sedge (S. verucosa) were assayed to determine
their phytochemicals, proximate and minerals potentials as well as their
diuretic and anti-inflammatory activities.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
OF THE STUDY
Plants with alkaloids, tannins,
flavonoids, saponins, glycosides and phenolics are known to possess
antimicrobial, antioxidant and diuretic activities (Hostettmann et al., 1995; Isaac and Chinwe, 2001).
Since the existence of these active compounds in plants constitutes
well-pronounced health benefits, the two plants (Pteridium aquilium and Scleria
verucosa) were analysed for the existence of these compounds. The medicinal
efficacies of these active compounds were tested using animal model. This
research is meant to assist in the discovery of medicines for the cure of
various diseases of man via medicinal plants research.
Many herbal medicine
practitioners extensively use Pteridium
aquilinum and Scleria verucosain
preparing many combination therapies for ailing persons. So, the curiosity over
the medicinal potentials of these plants gave birth to this reseach work. This investigative
researchwas carried out with a view to revealing the bioactive compounds occurring
in the twoplants and the therapeutic effects of the compounds via in-vivo studies.
The two African plants, Pteridium aquilinum and Scleria verucosa were used in this
medicinal plant research. Phytochemical analysis was conducted on the ethanol
leaf extracts of the two plants to determine their various phytochemical
potentials. Also, proximate and mineral analyses were carried out to ascertain their
mineral and proximate compositions. In other parameters, the anti-inflammatory
and diuretic activities of the ethanol leaf extract of P. aquilinum and S. verucosa were
tested using Wistar rats.
Phytochemical analyses of Pteridium aquilinum and Scleria
verucosa serve to test, verify or falsify previous medicinal plant researches.
This research serves to open a door to further research that will be harnessed
by phytochemists and pharmacists in the development of new drugs that can
withstand the drug resistance posed by many diseases.
1.4 AIM OF STUDY
To evaluate the phytochemical, anti-inflammatory, and
diuretic activities of the ethanol leaf extracts of Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn and Scleria verucosa Willd.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The objectives of this study are to:
i.
Determine the qualitative phytochemical
properties of ethanol extract of Pteridium
aquilinum (L.) Kuhn and Scleria
verucosa Willd.
ii.
Determine the quantitative phytochemical
properties of ethanol extract of Pteridium
aquilinum (L.) Kuhn and Scleria
verucosa Willd.
iii.
Determine the proximate composition of
ethanol extract of Pteridium aquilinum (L.)
Kuhn and Scleria verucosa Willd
iv.
Determine the mineral composition of
ethanol extract of Pteridium aquilinum (L.)
Kuhn and Scleria verucosa Willd.
v.
Determine theanti-inflammatory activities of
ethanol leaf extracts of Pteridium
aquilinum (L.) Kuhn and Scleria
verucosa Willd in Wistar rats.
vi.
Determine the diuretic activities of ethanol
leaf extract of Pteridium aquilinum (L.)
Kuhn and Scleria verucosa Willd in
Wistar rats.
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