ABSTRACT
The study examined the effects of soil erosion on livelihood activities of rural farm households in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are (i) describe the socio-economic characteristics of the rural farm households (ii) identified the causes of soil erosion in the area (iii) identified the perceived effects of soil erosion on the livelihood farm households in the area of study (iv) identified the livelihood strategies of the respondents in the study area (v) estimated the determinants of livelihood of the respondents (vi) identified the measures used in controlling soil erosion in the study area (vii) estimated the determinants of soil erosion control measures used by the farmers. A purposive sampling technique was used for the selection of 356 respondents that were used for the study. The study made use of primary data which were sourced with the aid of questionnaire. Data collected were analyzed with the use of descriptive statistic and econometric tools such as regression analysis and multinomial logit model. The result of the study showed that most of the farmers in the study area were males (66.3%). Majority (41.6%) of the farmers fell within the age bracket of 41-50 years. There were more (96.7%) educated farmers in the state. Majority (56.2%) of the farmers were married with household size of 4-6 persons. Most (56.2%) of the farmers were members of social organizations and had monthly non-farm income of ₦75 237.09 and above. The mean farm size of the farmers was 2.3ha with a mean of 9 years farming experience. Majority (84.8%) of the farmers had access to credit facilities but did not access it. The farmers had less contact with extension agents. Majority (68.5%) of the farmers cultivated on flat lands in the study area. Personal savings and Osusu served as the main sources of fund with percentages of about 84% and 8% respectively. The farmers farm on their inherited farm land (66.85%) and on small scale. Sheet and gully erosion were the most perceived types of erosion in the State. Causes of soil erosion elicited in the study area included overgrazing (
=2.74), sand excavation (=3.24), climate change (=3.17), road grading (=2.97), etc. The effects of soil erosion identified in the State included reduction in the quality of crops, food shortage, increase in the prices of food, etc. The livelihood activities of the respondents were farming, trading, barbing, hunting, fishing, carpentry, etc. The result of OLS regression model showed that sex, education, market distance, farm income, household size, farm topography, extension contact, membership of cooperatives and access to rural infrastructure significantly influenced livelihood activities of the people in Akwa Ibom State. The strategies adopted by the farmers for the control of the effect of soil erosion in the State were vegetative, structural and management measures. Multinomial logit regression model showed that age, education, household size, credit, non-farm income, sex, training, extension visit, bumper harvest and topography significantly determined the adoption of the various soil erosion control measures in the study area. The study recommended that human activities on the soil be regulated by government agencies, control measures be designed to address the problem of the soil erosion, etc as they will help in reducing erosion and hence improve the livelihood activities of the farmers.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page i
Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgement vi
Table of Content vii
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
Abstract xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study 8
1.4 Hypotheses
of the Study 9
1.5 Justification
of the Study 9
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 11
2.1 Conceptual Review 11
2.1.1 Erosion
11
2.1.2 Soil Erosion 12
2.1.2.1 Types of soil erosion 13
2.1.2.2 Causes of
Soil erosion in Nigeria 15
2.1.2.3
Factors that purpose soil erosion 18
2.1.2.4. Human actions that intensify soil erosion 20
2.1.2.5 Causes of
Soil Erosion in South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria 22
2.1.3 Livelihood Activities 24
2.1.3.1 Types of livelihood assets 25
2.1.3.2
Rural livelihood diversification 27
2.1.3.3 Effects of livelihood diversification 29
2.1.3.4 Criteria
for supporting diversification strategies 31
2.1.4. Effects of Soil Erosion on Livelihood
Activities 33
2.1.4.1
Environmental effect 33
2.1.4.2 Economic
effect 33
2.1.4.3 Social
effect 34
2.1.4.4 Socio-economic effects of soil erosion 36
2.1.5 Measures Adopted in
Controlling and Reducing the Effects of
Soil Erosion on Livelihood Activities of the Rural Farm Households 37
2.1.5.1 Constraints
to Soil Erosion Control 41
2.1.6 Rural Farm Households 42
2.2 Theoretical Literature 42
2.2.2 The ‘Resource Cause’ Theory 44
2.3 Empirical Review 45
2.3.1 Causes of soil erosion 45
2.3.2 Socio-monetary consequences of soil erosion 46
2.3.3 Soil
erosion manipulate practices 47
2.3.4 Socio-monetary effects of soil erosion 49
2.4
Analytical Framework 51
2.4.1
Descriptive statistic 51
2.4.1.1
Frequency distribution 52
2.4.1.2
Percentage 52
2.4.1.3
Mean 52
2.4.2
Regression analysis 53
2.4.3
Multinomial logistic regression 55
CHAPTER 3:
METHODOLOGY 57
3.1
Study Area 57
3.2
Sampling Techniques 61
3.3 Method
of Data Collection 61
3.4 Method of Data Analysis 61
3.5 Model Specification 62
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 68
4.1 Socioeconomic
Characteristics of Farmers in the Study Area 68
4.2 Types
of Soil Erosion in the Study Area 76
4.3 Perceived
Causes of Soil Erosion in the Study Area 77
4.4 Perceived
Effects of Soil Erosion in the Study Area 81
4.5 Livelihood
Activities in the Study Area 86
4.6 Determinants
of the Livelihood Activities of Respondent in the Study Area 88
4.7 Strategies
Adopted by the Farmers for the Control and Cushion of the effecf of soil
erosion in Akwa Ibom State 92
4.8
Multinomial Logit Regression Results
for the Determinants of Soil Erosion control measures used by the farmers 93
4.11
The
Socioeconomic Factors that determine farmers’ adoption of soil erosion control
measures in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria 95
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Summary of findings 102
5.2 Conclusion 104
5.3
Recommendations 105
5.4
Contribution to Knowledge 106
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
List of Tables
4.1: Percentage distribution
for respondents according to socio-economic characteristics 68
4.2: Distribution of farmers according to soil erosion
types in the area 76
4.3: Mean Ratings of Farmers on their Perceived Causes
of Soil Erosion 77
4.4: Mean Rating of Farmers on their Perceived Effects
of Soil Erosion 80
4.5: Distribution of Farmers according to Major
Livelihood Activities in the Study Area 86
4.6: Regression Analysis of Determinants
of Livelihood Activities of the Respondents 88
4.7: Distribution of Farmers
according to Strategies most Adopted for the Control of the Effect of Soil
Erosion in the Study Area 92
4.8: Model Fitting Information 93
4.9: Pseudo R-Square 93
4.10: Classification 94
4.11: Parameter Estimate of
Multinomial Logistic (MNL) Analysis of the Determinant of Farmers adoption of
Soil Erosion Control measures in Akwa Ibom State 95
List
of Figures
Map of Akwa Ibom
State 57
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
It is important to note that
soil remain one of the maximum crucial of all herbal sources. It hosts each
animate and inanimate beings. Over three quarters of the world's guy made
trends take vicinity at the soil. Erosion of the soil is a complicated,
obviously going on system that outcomes within side the detachment of soil
debris and transporting of such debris to unintentional places (Aja et al., 2017). This herbal system is due
to the dynamic hobby of erosive marketers, water, ice (glaciers), snow, wind,
plant life, animals, and people. In accordance with those marketers, erosion is
now and again divided into water erosion, glacial erosion, snow erosion, wind
(aeolean) erosion, zoogenic erosion and anthropogenic erosion (Apollo, et al., 2018). Soil erosion may be a
gradual system that keeps exceedingly left out or can arise at an alarming
charge, inflicting severe lack of soil top. Soil compaction, low natural
depend, lack of soil shape, negative inner drainage, salinization and soil
acidity issues are different severe soil degradation situations which can boost
up the soil erosion system (Nwachukwu, 2012). The lack of soil from farmland
can be meditated in decreased crop manufacturing ability, decrease floor water
great and broken drainage networks.
Soils play an essential position for mankind
due to the fact they they offer the critical atmosphere offerings required for
human existence in most cases for the manufacturing of meals alongside
imparting on the surroundings for plant boom (Sebastian et al., 2014). Soils
offer the pathways through which water and vitamins circulate to the roots of
plant life, they're the matrix for nutrient adjustments and surroundings for
micro-organisms and fauna (Powlson et al.,
2011). In the growing nations like Nigeria wherein a big percentage of human
populace relies upon nearly totally on land sources for his or her sustenance,
there may be growing competing call for land usage together with grazing, fish
pond production, quarrying, crop farming among others. The intensification of
cultivation ensuing in the starting up of recent lands exposes the pinnacle
soil to the factors of abrasion and alters the herbal ecological conservatory
balances in the landscape.
Livelihood sports have
multiplied with the aid of using 10-50 instances the charge at which erosion is
going on globally. Excessive (or elevated) erosion reasons each "on-land"
and "off-land" issues. On-land influences consist of decreases in
agricultural productiveness and (on herbal landscapes) ecological collapse,
ensuing because of lack of the nutrient-wealthy higher soil layers. In a few
instances, the eventual quit result is desertification. Off-land consequences
consist of sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, in
addition to sediment-associated harm to roads and homes (Apollo, et al., 2018). Water and wind erosion
are the major reasons of land degradation, in mixture, they're chargeable for
approximately 84% of the worldwide volume of degraded land, making immoderate
erosion one of the maximum sizeable environmental issues worldwide (Blanco and
Lal, 2010). Intensive agriculture , deforestation , roads , anthropogenic
weather change and concrete sprawl are among the maximum sizeable human sports
in regard to their impact on stimulating erosion (Julien, 2010).These distort
the livelihood sports of the agricultural farm families. The impacts of these
are low output, low earnings, growth in poverty and coffee fashionable of
residing. In Nigeria, diverse reasons of soil erosion as stated with the aid of
using diverse researchers consist of poverty, deforestation, bush burning,
rainfall, runoff cropping, plant life, tillage practices, slope gradient
and negative soil control (Tulu, 2002;
Nwonkonkwo, 2003; Sands, 2005; Balasubramanian, 2017). In the Southern a part
of Nigeria, the threat of soil erosion has been in lifestyles for a completely
lengthy time. According to Ugwuanyi et
al., (2012), with the lack of soil fertility because of erosion, maximum
farmers had been pressured to desert their cultivated soil to seek for
non-existent opportunity manner of livelihood. Some farmers sometimes seek for
different supply of livelihood together with trading, craft making, barbing,
logging, fishing, and many others. These diversification sports have sustained
the agricultural dwellers in quest to maintain their livelihood. This growing
fashion of soil erosion and its attendant effects on human survival ought to be
an issue for research to be done on. In South-south of Nigeria which include
Akwa Ibom State, there are numerous elements chargeable for soil erosion. The
reasons of soil erosion withinside the location are classified into elements
namely: Physical (geologic or herbal) and anthropogenic (human or elevated)
elements. These consist of land
clearing, negative control of land, overgrazing, flooding, out of control
irrigation, unlawful sand excavation, deforestation, topography, bush burning,
avenue grading, weather exalternate, and land pollutants which involve
industrial waste and quarrying of stone, sand and minerals (Abu,2011). In Akwa
Ibom State, the prevailing kingdom of the surroundings in particular, the oil
generating regions is appalling. Soil erosion is a severe environmental,
monetary and social hassle which now no longer most effective reasons for
excessive land degradation and soil productiveness loss, however, additionally
threatens the steadiness and fitness of society in trendy and sustainable
improvement of rural location specially (Tang, 2004; Zheng et al., 2004; Jing et al.,
2005). While stakeholders, in particular the trans-country wide oil agencies,
have exhibited zero issue for the properly-being in their operational area and its
inhabitants, the sufferers of those acts of abrasion are left to their fate.
This has caused limitless litigation in opposition to the oil agencies which
can be chargeable for this as their moves severely have an effect on the
livelihood of Akwa Ibom residents.
In the State, an extra
percent of the lively exertions pressure are engaged in a single shape of
agricultural hobby or some other, with the cultivation of cassava, plantain,
maize, cocoyam and greens as the important meals vegetation in the location.
However, because of the hydrographic situations of the State, most effective a
fragment of the land length is being cultivated with vegetation. It is crucial
to be aware that Akwa Ibom kingdom is epileptic on the difficulty of soil
control because of the outright negligence with the aid of using rural
dwellers, agencies and the authorities of the kingdom. Therefore, there may be
want for brief intervention thru a look at of this nature in an effort to
shrink the sports of person, agencies and governments which end result to the
eroded soil and to store the soil which subsequently, end result to salvaging
livelihood.
Research reports (Igbokwe, et al., 2008; Abu, 2011) have set up
dating among human sports and soil erosion. Gully erosion aided with the aid of
using rain water, relief, geology, and irresponsible human sports, has over
excited people, plant life, animals, homes, farm vegetation and lands. Flood
waters have dislodged and destroyed social infrastructures together with roads,
bridges, water schemes, National Electric Power Authority and Nigerian Telecommunication
Limited traces and many others. All of which have an effect on the livelihood
of the human beings in various degrees. Worse nonetheless, this ecological
hassle appears to have been disregarded with the aid of using the Federal and
State Governments and political representatives. Something maximum fine and
drastic have to be performed now and urgently too to store our human beings and
their lands from erosion.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In 2018, Nigeria held the position with about 87 million in
extreme poverty, compared with India’s 73 million. (World Bank, 2021). Food
disaster has now no longer most effective led to a 50-200% growth in meals
fees, but has pushed one hundred and ten million human beings into hunger
withinside the worldwide world (Abdulrahaman, 2013). A greater percentage of
agricultural land hectares in Nigeria are suffering from one-of-a-kind of risks
that consist of over cropping, over grazing, deforestation, irrelevant
agricultural practices and over exploitation (Iheke and Arikebe, 2012).
Findings found out that
negative and irrelevant soil control are the primary reasons of bodily,
chemical and organic erosion of cultivated land (Jimoh, and Ifabiyi, 2013;
Fakayo, 2011; Oyekale, 2008). Akwa Ibom State is one of the maximum densely
populated States in Nigeria whose populace has tripled from 3 million in 2006
to over six million in 2018 (National Population Commission, (NPC), 2018 ).
With this multiplied populace withinside the kingdom, agriculture wishes to
develop as a chief supply of meals, earnings and livelihood for meals
manufacturing to hold tempo with the speedy populace boom and call for meals
withinside the look at location (Bassey, 2012). Ibia (2016) in one in every of
his research found out that over ninety percentage of industrial deliver of
meals ate up withinside the State is furnished from different States. The
manufacturing of meals withinside the look at location is often practiced on
small scale, hence this big growth in meals import is a clean indication that
home agricultural output isn't in track with the State's home wishes for
critical meals objects and uncooked substances for agro-industries (Ukpong,
2010). In order for the farmers to grow meals availability, they take advantage
of the land sources and this has resulted to constraints confronted in
multiplied expenditure on soil, cultivation, availability of fertilizers,
agrochemicals, transportation and the use of different farm inputs withinside
the kingdom (Bassey, 2012). The scarcity of the land is on the increase and the
great of its sources together with soil, water, plant life and animals are
reducing due to negative control practices (Scherr, 2012). The lack of fertile
soil and its sources significantly have an effect on the livelihood of rural
farm families because of loss of efficient land, on account of erosion of the
pinnacle soil. Hence, the conservation and control of land and water sources
for sustainable intensification and agriculture and poverty discount in Akwa
Ibom has remained one of the maximum hard coverage troubles for a protracted
time. This venture confronted with the aid of using the Akwa Ibom human beings
in phrases in their environmental scenario, emanated often from their
livelihood sports. These livelihood sports consequently cause deforestation,
soil erosion and environmental pollutants. The final result of the sports
outcome is unproductive soil.
Nwosu (2014) diagnosed the consequences of
soil erosion to consist of excessive hardship, soil nutrient loss, discount in
land productiveness, growth in fee of input, growth in meals fees, discount in
crop yield, dying of cattle, destruction of markets and different
infrastructure, lack of farm lands, destruction of monetary timber, low farm
earnings, and lack of farm exertions (because of pressured migration). All
these names for excellent issue as their non-stop lifestyles will significantly
have an effect on the livelihood of crop farmers. Erosion aided with the aid of
using rain water, relief, geology, and irresponsible human sports, has disrupt
people, plant life, animals, homes, farm vegetation and lands. Flood waters
have dislodged and destroyed social infrastructures together with roads,
bridges, water schemes, National Electric Power Authority and Nigerian Telecommunication
Limited traces and many others withinside the study area (Effiong, 2010). These
call for brief interest and on the spot reaction to shrink the threat.
Many streams and springs
that served as water deliver assets to rural groups, for home functions and for
irrigation agriculture are progressively destroyed with the aid of using gully
erosion. Cases in factor are Akpan Abara and shell streams in Ikot Akpa Nkuk,
Ukanafun Local Government Headquarters wherein the previous streams have
absolutely been silted up with eroded and gullied particles. The relics of
these preceding streams are the beds and marshlands over grown with raffia
palms. In city facilities of Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Oron, gullies are extending
thru streets, undermining homes and subsequently destroying them. The infamous
Uyo ravine, as an example, has an anatomizing community of gullies with sizable
gully fingers, frame and soul in addition to tentacles which can be properly
disbursed in a complicated and extensive way in the ravaged surroundings. It
has penetrated and encroached upon the newly commissioned authorities residence
at the back of Dominic Utuk Avenue; has hampered the enlargement of the city
campus of University of Uyo and has displaced many settlements alongside its
route from Anua to Ikot Adaidem (Effiong, 2010).
The consequences of soil
erosion are great which include risky obstructions inflicting deadly injuries
and loss of harmless lives, useless of maximum farmlands in gully regions, soil
vitamins leached out withinside the uplands, destruction of the clayey
lowlands, deposit of sands and silts eroded from the highlands on previously
wealthy lowlands or marshlands, masking of the wealthy pinnacle soil with vain
sands and silts, rendering them infertile. Specific tries to handling the
scenario with the aid of using fertilizer utility, do now no longer assist as a
good deal since the implemented ones are without problems washed away. Indeed,
the charge of such soil loss, whether or not withinside the towns or villages,
is unquantifiable. The much less soil we have, it will increase food fee and
the extra tough situation it becomes to feed the exploding populace. The above
immense surroundings issues have prompted big socioeconomic losses together
with unfavourable impact on trade and commerce, enterprise and technological
improvement, dislocation of maximum social and monetary sports and destruction
of infrastructures, thereby inflicting woes at the human beings and authorities
of Akwa Ibom State and all Nigerians. It is consequently so tough to entrench
sustainable improvement due to the fact that, what is constructed is
progressively destroyed (Effiong, 2010). Studies had been done on environmental
degradation in Akwa Ibom kingdom (Nwokoro and Chima, 2017). Also, different
researches had been done on soil control practices withinside the location
(Anderson, 1995; Ituen et al., 2008; Effiong, 2010). These works especially
give attention to the features of soil erosion and its reasons. From
literature, very little research had been performed on the impact of soil
erosion on the livelihood activities of farmers in Akwa Ibom state, therefore,
the need for this work. Arising from the above therefore, the following
research questions were addressed:
1. what are the
socio-monetary traits of the agricultural farm families in the area of study?
2. what are the reasons of soil erosion in the
area of study?
3. what are the perceived impacts of soil
erosion on the livelihood activities of the respondents in
Akwa Ibom?
4. what are the livelihood activities of the
respondents in the study area?
5. what are the determinants of livelihood of
the respondents?
6. what are the diverse techniques used by the
farmers for the control and cushion of the impact
of soil erosion in the study area?
7. what are the determinants of soil erosion
manipulate measures utilized by farmers?
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The large goal of the look
at was to evaluate the effects of soil erosion on livelihood activities of
rural farm families in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study:
(i)
described
the socio-economic characteristics of the rural farm households in relation to
the livelihood activities and effect of soil erosion of respondents in the
study area;
(ii)
identified
the causes of soil erosion in the study area;
(iii)
identified
the perceived effects of soil erosion on the livelihood of rural farm households
in the study area;
(iv)
identified
the livelihood activities of the respondents in the study area;
(v)
estimated
the determinants of livelihood of the respondents;
(vi)
identified
the measures utilized in controlling soil erosion in the study area;
(vii)
estimated
the determinants of soil erosion control measures utilized by the farmers.
1.4 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The following hypotheses had
been examined for the study:
H1: Educational
attainment, gender, farm size, market distance, member of cooperative extension
visit, household size, topography, access to rural infrastructure and farm
experience are positively related to livelihood activities while credit amount
is negatively related to livelihood activities.
H2:
The educational attainment, training, access to credit, farm size, household
size and topography are expected to relate positively to choice of soil erosion
control measures, while sex, non-farm income, bumper harvest, extension visit
and age are negatively related to the choice of soil erosion control measures.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE
STUDY
Agriculture in Nigeria is a
department of the economic system in Nigeria that supplied employment for
approximately 35% of the populace as of 2020 (World Bank Data, 2020).
Agriculture nonetheless stays the important profession and certainly the
maximum crucial livelihood hobby of rural families in rural regions which
include Akwa Ibom State. Soil is the fundamental aid in the manufacturing of
meals and rearing of animals. The rural farmers depend upon soil majorly for
his or her activity, however the soil is being over-exploited with the aid of
using those farmers without them understanding the impact on their livelihood.
The final results of this look at will assist policy makers to get higher
information approximately environmental scenario in phrases of soil erosion in
the southern a part of the country, so one can safely equip them with the
exceptional coverage intervention equipment in an effort to improve the
livelihood of farmers.
Also the findings of this
look at could be beneficial to aid managers, rural farmers, nearby groups,
authorities and improvement partners, to benefit perception at the severity of
soil erosion and methods of controlling and dealing with the soil erosion in an
effort to hold the fertility of the soil for sustainable agriculture and
different livelihood sports of the agricultural farmers. This look at can even
offer a remarks mechanism to researchers, farmers, crop scientists,
agriculturists, extension marketers, and coverage and regulation makers with
the aid of using imparting and goal evaluation to conquer the impact of soil
erosion on the livelihood activities of rural farm families in Akwa Ibom State.
The look at could be applicable in imparting empirical proof of the
consequences of soil erosion on livelihood sports of rural farm families in the
State.
Further research can be
constructed on it and therefore fill in any statistics gap that could stand up
from this study. The findings of the look at canserve the country in her
pressure to ensure self-sufficiency in meals crop manufacturing because it will
become aware of sustainable practices in an effort to assist to conquer the
sports that might end result to soil erosion for elevated meals crop
manufacturing and development of livelihood in Akwa Ibom State and the entire
country.
Login To Comment