ABSTRACT
The utilization of cultural strategies has been proposed to suppress plant diseases caused by pathogens. In 2019 cropping session, a field trial was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) to assess the incidence and severity of leaf spot disease of eggplant (Solanum gilo), to test the efficacy of crop (Zea mays) companionship and soil amendments applications on the suppression of leaf spot disease of eggplant and to ascertain the efficacy of botanicals on growth inhibition of leaf spot pathogens in Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria. The soil amendments used were Palm Bunch Biochar, Moringa Leaf Biochar, Poultry Manure Biochar, Organomineral Fertilizer (NP2O4 K2O 15:4:4) and Inorganic Fertilizer (NPK 15:15:15). At two weekly intervals, 162 Kg/ha and 243 Kg/ha for fertilizers and biochar respectively were applied. The parameters considered were disease incidence, disease severity, growth, yield components and parameters. Samples of diseased leaves were taken from field to the laboratory for isolation, characterization, identification of the pathogen, pathogenicity test and pathogen inhibition. Application of soil amendments significantly (p = 0.05) suppressed leaf spot disease and promoted the yield components and yield of maize and eggplant in both intercropping and sole cropping systems. The highest infection percentage (71.34%) was recorded in control in sole cropping, while the lowest percent (8.83%) was recorded in Poultry Manure Biochar and Inorganic Fertilizer in intercropping system. The highest disease severity was recorded in control (4.34%) in sole cropping while the lowest severity was recorded in Poultry Manure Biochar (1.04%) in intercropping system. Pathogenicity reveals that the high incidence and severity of the disease is due to the complex association of several pathogens causing spot disease in Umudike. From the study, soil amendments such as application of organomineral and inorganic fertilizer as well as application of biochars significantly (p = 0.05) increased the height, number of leaves, number of branches, leaf area and fruit yield over the control in both cropping systems. It was observed that among the amendments, organic and inorganic fertilizer significantly (p = 0.05) increased yield components and yield than the biochar counterpart. Among the biochars, Poultry Manure Biochar had better plant parameters and disease conditions than Palm Bunch Biochar, Moringa Leaf Biochar and the control. The study also showed the promising potentials of intercropping in leaf spot disease suppression and suggested that the effectiveness in disease control is likely the outcome of interactions between numerous mechanisms. The studies further showed that extract of A. indica root, Z. officinale rhizome, M. olifeira root and C. papaya root have the potential (p = 0.05) to inhibit radial growth of leaf spot pathogens of eggplant in-vitro.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Dedication iii
Certification iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Plates xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 World
Production Statistics of Eggplant 4
2.2
Uses of Eggplant 5
2.3
Diseases of Eggplant 5
2.3.1
Fungal diseases 5
2.3.2 Bacterial diseases 8
2.3.3 Viral diseases 9
2.4
Control of Eggplant Diseases 10
2.4.1
Biological control 10
2.4.2
Use of botanicals 11
2.4.3
cultural control 13
2.4.3.1 Intercropping 13
2.4.3.2 Organic amendment (Biochar) 15
CHAPTER 3 17
MATERIALS AND METHODS 17
3.1
Field Experiment 17
3.1.1 Study area 17
3.1.2
Soil sampling and analysis of
experimental sit e 17
3.1.3
Source of
planting materials 18
3.1.4
Seed planting 18
3.1.5
Preparation and application of biochar and other soil amendments 18
3.1.6
Field preparation and layout 19
3.1.7
Data collection 19
3.1.7.1 Assessment of growth and
yield parameters 19
3.1.7.2 Field assessment of disease
incidence and severity 20
3.2 Laboratory Experiment 23
3.2.1
Sterilization of glasswares and inoculation chamber 23
3.2.2
Preparation of culture media 23
3.2.3
Isolation of pathogen 23
3.2.4
Characterization of pathogenic bacterial isolates 24
3.2.4.1
Colony features 24
3.2.4.2
Microscopic features 24
3.2.4.2.1
Gram reaction 24
3.2.4.2.2
Potassium hydroxide test 25
3.2.4.3
Biochemical test 25
3.2.4.3.1
Oxidase test 25
3.2.4.3.2
Catalase test 25
3.2.4.4 LOPAT test 25
3.2.4.4.1
Levan production 26
3.2.4.4.2
Potato rot test 26
3.2.4.4.3
Arginine dihydrolase test 26
3.2.4.5
Carbohydrate utilization test 26
3.2.5
Introduction of inoculum for pathogenicity test 26
3.2.6
Hypersensitivity test 27
3.2.7
Identification of pathogen 27
3.3
Antimicrobial Experiment 27
3.3.1
Processing of plant materials 27
3.3.2 Production of plant extracts 28
3.3.3
Antimicrobial activity test 29
3.4 Statistical Analysis 29
CHAPTER 4 30
RESULT AND DISCUSSION 30
4.1 Result 30
4.2
Discussion 42
CHAPTER
5 51
CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 51
5.1 Conclusion 51
5.2
Recommendation 52
References
Appendices
LIST OF TABLES
4.2 Effect
of Soil Amendment on Growth Parameters and Yield Components of S. gilo in Intercropping and Sole
cropping System
in Umudike in 2019 31
4.2 Effect
of Soil Amendment on Yield Components of Zea
mays in
Intercropping and Sole cropping System in Umudike in 2019. 32
4.3 Effect
of Soil Amendment on Disease Incidence and Severity of leaf spot of S. gilo in Intercropping and Sole
cropping
System in Umudike in 2019 34
4.4 Frequency
of Occurrence of Spot Disease Pathogens in Leaves of Eggplant in Umudike 36
4.5 Morphological
and Biochemical Characterization of Bacteria Leaf Spot Pathogens
of S. gilo 37
4.6 In-vitro Effect of Botanicals on Radial
Growth and Percentage
Inhibition of Leaf Spot Pathogens of S.
gilo. 40
LIST
OF PLATES
1 Experimental field 21
2 A Healthy S. gilo 22
3 Bacterial Spot Infected Leaves of S. gilo 22
4 Culture Samples of Bacteria 38
5 Symptoms from Hypersensitivity Test 38
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Eggplant
(Solanum gilo Raddi.) also known as
Scarlett eggplant belongs to the family solanaceae.
It is synonymous with Solanum aethiopicum
L. and Solanum incanum L. (Lester and
Seck, 2004). The Solanaceae are
herbs, shrubs or trees comprising about 85 genera and 2,800 species that are
frequently lianous or creeping. According to Obute and Ndukwu (2006), it
comprises of over 1000 species and is almost cosmopolitan, with at least 100
indigenous African species.
In
Africa, large assortments of edible species are recognized by their different
sizes, shapes and patterns of coloration of their berries (Chinedu et al., 2011). The most important
producing countries are Nigeria, Ghana and Senegal. Other producing countries
are South America and Caribbean (Udoh et al., 2005).
The
crop is commonly referred to in the western-world as "mock tomato".
The crop is known by different vernacular names in different parts of Nigeria
like Nnya (Ibibio), Anara (Igbo), Yalo (Hausa), Igba (Yoruba) and other common
names like African eggplant, garden egg, scarlet eggplant and bitter tomato
(Lester and Seck, 2004). Eggplants in general are well branched biennials that
are usually cultivated as annuals. They grow from 0.5 - 1.5 high or 200 cm tall
according to Lester and Seck, (2004), and are often much branched, and the stem
is woody at base, but herbaceous above, erect or spreading. The fruits are
globose to depressed globose, ellipsis, ovoid or fusiforn berry, 1 - 6 cm long,
smooth to groove and many seeded (Pandy, 2007). According to Eze et al.
(2012), Solanum gilo shows a wide range of character in fruit shape,
colour, size and taste suggesting a broad genetic base probably to its origin
through various crosses between different species. The seeds are lenticular to
reniform, are flattened, about 2 - 5 mm diameter. They are pale brown to
yellow, with seedlings having epigeal germination (Pandy, 2007).
Solanum
gilo is a tropical crop and tolerates optimal
night temperature of 20oC - 27oC. Day temperature ranges
between 25oC - 35oC. The plant requires full exposure to
sunlight. It does well in well drained, sandy loam soils with optimum pH of 5.5
- 6.8 (Trujillo, 2003).
Seeds
are sown on well prepared nursery bed or seed boxes. The seeds are covered with
a thin layer of soil and slightly pressed to prevent their removal by birds,
rodents or ants. The seeds germinate 5 - 7 days after sowing. Transplanting is
done when seedlings are 12 – 15 cm high or about 35 - 40 days after sowing
(Lester and Seck, 2004; Udoh et al., 2005).
According
to Odetola et al. (2004), S. gilo contains
steroids, alkaloids and flavonoids. Research showed that the most important
constituents with medicinal properties are the alkaloids (Sairam, 2000). The
work of Mutalik et al. (2003) reported that the preliminary
phytochemical screeming of the dry residue of S. gilo leaves showed the
presence of flavonoid, alkaloids, tannins and steroids. As the fruits can be
easily stored and transported, they are increasingly important products for the
urban markets. Garden egg is not only consumed on an almost daily basis by
rural and urban families but it also represent the main source of income for
many rural household (Danquah-Jones, 2000; Owusu-Ansah et al., 2001).
Despite
its economic and local importance, eggplant production has not improved due to
disease constraints (Chaldha and Mndiga, 2007) and there is limited knowledge
as to these constraints. This research will bring about steady availability of
quality eggplant for home consumption and marketing as disease menace is partly
addressed.
This
investigation is undertaken to;
·
Isolate, characterize and
identify the causal agents of bacteria leaf spot disease of Solanum gilo.
·
Compare the effect of
intercropping and sole cropping on bacteria leaf spot disease of Solanum gilo in-vivo.
·
Determine the effect of different
soil amendments on bacteria leaf spot disease of Solanum gilo in-vivo.
·
Assess the effect of
intercropping and different soil amendments on yield components and yield of S. gilo and Zea mays in S. gilo and Zea mays intercrop in-vivo.
·
Evaluate the efficacy of
some botanicals on bacteria leaf spot disease of Solanum gilo in-vitro.
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