ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to determine the effects of combined graded dietary levels of crude protein and essential amino acids on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, internal organ proportion, carcass nutrient composition, blood profile, and economics of production of turkeys. One hundred and thirty five day old poults were randomly allocated to dietary treatments in a 3x3 factorial experiment in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Each treatment was replicated thrice with 5 poults per replicate. The experiment was divided into two phases, in the starter phase which lasted for eight (8) weeks the birds were fed the treatment diets contained dietary crude protein at 3 levels (A1 28%, A2 26% and A3 24%) and dietary amino acids at 3 levels each (Methionine: B1 0.15%, 0.25% and 0.35% and Lysine: B2 0.30%,0.50%,0.70%), whereas in the grower phase which commenced from the nineth and ended sixteenth (9-16) weeks, the birds were given the treatment diets contained 3 levels of crude protein (AI 22%, A2 20%, and A3 18%) and 3 levels of amino acids each (Methionine:B10.10%,0.20% and 0.30% and Lysine: B2 0.20%,0.40%,0.60%). The study lasted for 16 weeks during which water and feed were given to the birds’ adlibitum. The initial body weight of the birds which ranged from (43.67 – 44.00g) per bird were not significantly different (P>0.05) from one another. The final weight of birds fed diet 3 at (0-16) weeks was significantly higher (P<0.05) than others followed by that of diet 9 whereas diet 2 has the least value (3050g), suggesting that high methionine and lysine with low protein is adequate to support the growth of birds. The feed intake of birds on diet 3 (133g) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than others, whereas the feed intake of birds fed diet 4 has the least value (115g). The weight gained and average daily weight gained took the same pattern with the final weight of birds. The weight gained of diet 3 (4589g) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than others whereas that of diet 2 has the least value (3006g). However, diet 3 has the best feed conversion ratio since it had the least numerical value (3.25f/g). This mean that diet 3 were utilized better by birds for weight gained than others. There was no mortality recorded during the cause of the experiment based on the treatment diets. There were significantly difference (P<0.05) in carcass yield, cut-parts and organ proportions parameters evaluated except the weight of the thigh. In carcass proximate nutrient composition both in starter and grower phases: (Crude protein, Ash, energy, Nitrogen free Extract and Ether extract) were all statistically different (P<0.05). Result showed that blood profile indices (hematology and serum chemistry) were significantly (P<0.05) influenced across the treatment groups. In the economics of production at (0- 16) weeks, diet 3 was significantly higher than others in almost all the parameters examined. However, Diet 3 and 9 gave the best results in this study and it should be recommended for local Turkey production which will in turn reduce the problem of low protein supply to humanity.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication
iv Acknowledgment v
Table
of Contents
vi
List of Tables xi
Abstract
xiii
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
1
1.2 Statement of Problem 4
1.3
Objectives of the Study 5
1.4 Justification of the Study 6
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW
OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 General Overview on Nutrient Requirement of
Poultry 8
2.2 History
and Distribution of Turkeys 10
2.3 Breeds, Varieties and Strains of Turkey 12
2.4 Production and Management of Turkeys 13
2.5
Management practices of Turkeys 14
2.5.1 Brooding 14
2.5.2 Heat
and light sources 14
2. 5.3
Ventilation provision 15
2.5.4
Water supply 15
2.55
Feeding 15
2.5.6 Litter management 16
2.6 Nutrient Requirement of Turkey 16
2.6.1 Water requirement of Turkey 17
2.6.2 Protein and amino acids requirement of
Turkey 18
2.6.3
Energy requirement of Turkey 23
2.6.4 Mineral requirement of Turkey 29
2.6.5 Fiber requirement of Turkey 30
2.6.6 Ether extract requirement of Turkey 31
2.6.7 Vitamin
requirement of Turkey 31 2.7 Dietary
Protein Level and Amino Acids Balance 33
2.8 Effect of Methionine and Lysine on Growth
Performance of Turkeys 35
2.9 Effect of Methionine
and Lysine on the Carcass Characteristics 37 2.10 Blood as a Component in Animal
Nutritional Studies
38
2.10.1 Significance of haematological indices in
nutritional studies of Turkey 39 2.10.1.1 Haemoglobin
40
2.10.1.2 The Red Blood Cell
41
2.10.1.3 White Blood Cell
43 2.10.1.4 Packed Cell Volume 43
2.10.1.5 Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) 45
2.10.1.6 Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH)
45 2.10.1.7
Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration
45 2.10.2
Significance of Serum
biochemical indices in nutritional studies 47
of Turkey
2.10.2.1 Serum total protein 47
2.10.2.2 Serum albumin 48
2.10.2.3 Serum globulin
49
2.10.2.4 Serum
urea
49
.10.2.5 Serum
glucose
50
2.10.2.6 Serum cholesterol
50
2.11
Effect of Methionine and Lysine
on the Economics of Production 53
2.12 Factors
Affecting Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Turkeys 54
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1
Experimental Site and Location 55
3.2 Duration
of Study
55
3.3
Experimental Design 55 3.4
Experimental Diets 56 3.5 Experimental Animal and Management 61
3.5.1 Procurement 61
3.5.2
Site preparation 61
3.5.3 Space allocation 61
3.5.4
Brooding 62
3.5.5 Rearing 62
3.5.6 Vaccination and medication 62
3.6 Data
Collection and Analysis 63
3.6.1 Growth
performance parameters 63
3.6.2 Carcass characteristics 63
3.6.3 Carcass nutrient composition 64
3.6.4 Haematological parameters 65
3.6.5
Serum chemistry 68
3.6.6 Economic of production 69
3.7 Statistical
Analysis 70
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Growth Performance
of Starter Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein and 71
Essential Amino Acids (0-8 weeks
4.2 Carcass Yield and Cut-Parts of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein 75
and Essential Amino
Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.3 Internal Organ Proportions of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein 78
and Essential Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.4 Carcass Nutrient Composition of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein
81
and Essential Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.5 Haematology of Starter Turkeys fed Levels of
Crude Protein and Essential
84
Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.6 Serum
Chemistry of Starter Turkeys fed Levels Crude Protein and Essential 88
Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.7 Economics of Production of Starter Turkeys
fed Levels of Crude Protein 91
and Essential Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.8
Growth Performance of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein and 94
Essential Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.9
Carcass
Yield and Cut-Parts of Starter Turkeys fed Levels of Crude 97
Protein and Essential Amino Acids (9-16
weeks)
4.10 Internal Organ Proportions of Starter Turkeys
fed Levels of Crude 100
Protein and Essential Amino Acids (9-16
weeks)
4.11
Carcass Nutrient Composition of
Starter Turkeys fed Levels of
Crude 103
Protein and Essential Amino Acids (9-16
weeks)
4.12
Haematology of Starter Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein 106
and Essential Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.13
Serum Chemistry of Starter Turkeys fed Levels Crude Protein and 108
Essential Amino acids (9-16 weeks)
4.14
Economics of Production of
Starter Turkeys fed Levels of Crude 111
Protein and Essential Amino Acids (9-16
weeks)
4.15
Growth Performance of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude Protein 114
and Essential Amino Acids (0-16 weeks)
4.16 Carcass Yield and Cut-Parts of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude
117
Protein
and Essential Amino Acids (0-16 weeks
4.17 Internal Organ Proportions of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels of Crude 120
Protein and Essential Amino Acids (0-16
weeks)
4.18 Carcass Nutrient
Composition of Starter Turkeys fed
Levels of 123
Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0-16 weeks)
4.19
Haematology of Starter Turkeys
fed Levels of Crude Protein and 126
Essential Amino Acids (0-16 weeks)
4.20 Serum Chemistry of Starter Turkeys fed
Levels Crude Protein and 129
Essential Amino acids (0-16 weeks)
4.21 Economics of Production of Starter Turkeys fed
Levels of Crude 132
Protein and Essential Amino Acids (0-16
weeks)
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 134
5.2 Recommendations
135
References
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Nutrient
Requirement of Turkeys
26
2.2 Nutrient Requirement of Turkeys In
Different Stages 27
2.3 Recommended
Energy and Crude Protein Levels for Turkeys
28
2.4 Haematological Variables of Apparently
Healthy Indigenous Turkey
46
2.5 Normal Serum
Biochemistry Reference Intervals for Four Months Old 52
Wild Turkey
3.1 Treatment
Diets Combination. 58
3.2 Percentage Composition of Experimental Diets
fed Starter 59
Turkeys (0-8 weeks)
3.3 Percentage Composition of Experimental
Diets fed Grower
60
Turkeys (9-16weeks)
4.1 Interaction Effect on Growth Performance
of Starter Turkeys fed 74
Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.2 Interaction Effect on Carcass Yield and
Cut-parts of Starter Turkeys
77
fed Levels of Crude Protein and
Essential Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.3 Interaction Effect on Internal Organ
proportion of Starter Turkeys 80
fed Levels of Crude Protein and
Essential Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.4 Interaction Effect on Carcass Nutrient
Composition of Starter Turkeys
83
fed Levels of Crude Protein and
Essential Amino Acids (0 - 8weeks)
4.5 Interaction Effect on Haematology of Starter
Turkeys fed Levels 87
of Crude Protein and Essential Amino
Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.6 Interaction Effect on Serum Chemistry of
Starter Turkeys fed 90
Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0-8 weeks)
4.7 Interaction Effect on Economics of Production
of Starter Turkeys fed
93
Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0-8 Weeks).
4.8 Interaction Effect on Growth Performance
of grower Turkeys 96
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.9 Interaction Effect on Carcass Yield and
Cut-parts of Grower Turkeys 99
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.10
Interaction Effect on Internal Organ proportion of Grower Turkeys 102
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.11
Interaction Effect on Carcass
Nutrient Composition of Grower Turkeys 105
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.12
Interaction Effect on Haematology
of Grower Turkeys fed Levels 107
of Crude Protein and Essential Amino Acids
(9-16 weeks)
4.13
Interaction Effect on Serum
Chemistry of Grower Turkeys 110
fed
Levels of Crude Protein and Essential Amino Acids (9-16 weeks)
4.14
Interaction Effect on Economics
of Production of Grower Turkeys 113
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (9-16 Weeks).
4.15
Interaction Effect on Growth Performance of Turkeys fed Levels 116
of Crude Protein and Essential Amino Acids
(0-16 weeks)
4.16
Interaction Effect on Carcass
Yield and Cut-parts of Turkeys 119
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0-16 weeks)
4.17 Interaction Effect on Internal Organ
proportion of Turkeys 122
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0-16 weeks)
4.18 Interaction Effect on
Carcass Nutrient Composition of Turkeys 125
fed Levels of Crude Protein and Essential
Amino Acids (0 – 16 weeks)
4.19 Interaction Effect on
Haematology of Turkeys fed Levels 128
of Crude Protein and Essential Amino Acids
(0-16 weeks)
4.20 Interaction Effect on Serum Chemistry of
Turkeys fed 131
Levels of Crude Protein and Essential Amino
Acids (0-16 weeks)
4.21 Interaction Effect on Economics of Production
of Turkeys 133
fed
Levels of Crude Protein and Essential Amino Acids (0-16 Weeks).
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The
need to increase livestock production as a means of alleviating the
overwhelming shortage of animal protein is very vital to humanity (Fielding,
1991). The demand for protein of animal origin in Nigeria is greater than the
supply (Akinmutimi and Onwukwe, 2002). The problem of protein deficiency in Nigeria
is evidenced by the fact that an average Nigerian consumes about 10g per day of
the minimum daily protein intake of 35g recommended by food and agricultural
organization (FAO, 1997). Obioha (1992), revealed the level of consumption of
animal protein in Nigeria to be 8g per day. This is because of the low supply
of animal product as influenced by high cost of feed. However, Ani and Adiegwu
(2005), had attributed the low protein intake to low level of animal protein
production and high cost of animal products, and suggested the intensification
of the production of highly reproductive animals with short gestation intervals
such as poultry, pigs and rabbits (Smith, 2001).
Knowledge
of the availability of amino acids in feedstuffs is an important feature of
dietary protein quality. Reliable values of this feed ingredients attribute
permit more efficient formulation of poultry diets. Many approaches have been
made to determine amino acid availability (defined as that proportion of
dietary amino acids that is in a form suitable for digestion, absorption and
utilization). Proteins are organic
compounds used to build the cells, tissues and organs for the body. They are
made up of many amino acids of which are essential for growth and production.
Amino acids which are said to be essential such as methionine and lysine etc
cannot be synthesized by birds. These essential amino acids must therefore be
fed in order to supply the building blocks needed in the synthesis of body
proteins thereby supporting growth. However, feedstuffs that contain twenty
(20) percent or more of its dry matter as protein are classified as protein
sources (Olomu, 1995). Protein source can be of plant origin like soybean,
groundnut and cowpea; they may also be of animal origin like fish, blood, milk
and meat. Cereal grain protein and vegetable feed ingredients that constitutes
the greater proportion of chickens diets are generally acknowledged to contain
low level of sulphur amino acids and lysine D’Mello (1993), not only that these
plant proteins are deficient in some of these amino acids, essential for normal
growth, but are poor, that they cannot be offset by increasing their
concentrations in animals diets (Wethli et
al., 1975). Hence the use of plant proteins as sole source of amino acids
had yielded poor results with different classes of poultry Chhillar et al., (1971), Nwokoro (1993). The
problem is usually reduced by incorporation of some quantities of synthetic
forms of amino acids especially methionine and lysine, which are adjudged the
most limiting amino acids in cereal based diets (Mauron, 1981).
Therefore,
Proper nutrition is a basic pre-requisite for successful poultry production
(Kekeocha, 1984). Since it increases the resistance of poultry birds to
diseases and also allows the producer to optimize the genetic potentials of
birds (FAO, 1971). Energy and protein requirements are the most significant
components in poultry feed as production cost is concerned .The efficiency of
poultry to convert the feed into meat and eggs plays a key role in the
economics of poultry industry. This feed conversion efficiency largely depends
on the nutrient index of the feed and the availability of such nutrients to
enhance digestibility and subsequent satisfaction of the nutrient requirements
of the animals. Since feed cost represents over 70% of the cost of production,
special care should therefore be taken in providing the most suitable diet and
safeguarding feed quality (Cobb, 1988). The quantity of each required nutrients
varies depending on many variables like species of bird, age, productive state,
environmental conditions and disease status (Mississippi State University,
2010). All poultry feeds are referred to as complete feed (Mississippi State
University, 2010) if they contains protein, energy, vitamin, mineral, fats and
oil and water necessary for proper growth of the birds. It is not necessary to
classify nutrients into maintenance and production requirements rather, it is
convenient to specify and provide total requirements for each category of
Poultry (Obioha, 1992). Therefore, all stages of life except during lay, the
protein requirements of Turkeys are higher than that of chickens (Olomu, 1995).
This is because turkeys grow much bigger than chickens and the requirements for
protein is higher.
The
choice of Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is because
of its great advantage over other poultry species in resolving the
protein deficiency in an average
Nigerian diet, as they have large size,
high protein content, carcass quality, fast growth rate and high resistance to diseases (Ugwuene et al., 2003). The productivity of
indigenous birds like Chickens and Turkeys improved by providing appropriate
housing, disease control and good nutrition (Mbadiorgu et al., 2011). The nutritional requirements of Turkeys and
commercial chickens and related Poultry stock have been estimated (NRC, 1994).
The protein requirements of Turkeys are higher than those of broiler chicks at
the same age (NRC, 1994), since protein is a major cost of feed, there is a need
to investigate the methods of reducing the production cost in turkeys. The best
way to reduce nitrogen in poultry excreta is to lower the amount of crude
protein that is fed by supplementing diets with essential amino acids. Diet
formulation for birds based on amino acid requirements rather than crude
protein can minimize nitrogen excretion. For example, Ferguson et al., (1998) demonstrated with broiler
that litter nitrogen could be reduced by more than 16% when dietary crude
protein was reduced by 2%, while maintaining similar levels of dietary amino
acids. This study was designed to determine the effects of combination of
graded dietary levels of protein and amino acids on performance of turkeys.
1.2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
One
of the major problems of Poultry production is inadequate supply of good
nutrition to the animals, the reason appears to be the combination of energy,
protein and essential Amino acids ratios in the diet of birds, and lack of
appreciation of its potential in contributing to the protein needs of the
consumers or perhaps the lack of understanding of its management and production
requirements (Nwagu, 2002). It is on record that high protein diets of birds
results in increase of high excretion of ammonia whose cumulative amount adds to
the environmental pollution with green house gases that are detrimental to both
human and animal health (USDA-NRCS, 2003). This environmental pollution result
in depreciation of ozone layers and environmental degradation. Proteins are
organic compounds used to build the cells, tissues and organs for the body.
They are made up of many amino acids of which are essential for growth and
production. Deficiency of essential amino acids in poultry often lead to loss
of appetite, retarded growth, poor feed utilization, abdominal fat, increased
incidence of feather pecking, and reduction in egg production in layers. Achieving
maximum health and performance of poultry requires nutritionally balanced
diets. Reducing crude protein content (particularly by formulating to essential
amino acid needs rather than setting of a CP minimum) of turkey diets can have
considerable economic benefits. When studies were conducted, several researches
have noted that when essential amino acid requirements are met, NRC (1994) Cp recommendations
are not warranted (Sell et al 1994;
Waibel et al., 1995; Boling and
Firman, 1997; Kidd et al., 1997;
Waldroup et al., 1976).
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Main objective
The
main objective of this study was to determine the effects of dietary levels of
crude protein and essential amino acids combinations on the performance of
turkeys.
Specific objectives
i. To determine the growth performance of
turkeys fed the treatment diets.
ii.
To determine the carcass yield, cut-parts and
internal organ proportions
of turkeys fed the treatment diets.
iii.
To determine the carcass nutrient composition of major cut-part
of turkeys fed the treatment diets
iv
To determine the haematology and serum biochemistry indices of turkey
fed
the treatment diets.
v
To evaluate economics of production of turkeys using the treatment
diets.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY.
The performance of Poultry birds like
Turkey cannot be over emphasized due to its imperative importance in
improvement of protein need of Nigerians. With the continued rise in the cost
of production of chicken, beef, sheep and goat, which are the primary sources
of animal protein in Nigeria, it has become necessary to explore other
efficient and less common but potential sources of animal protein for economic
viability. Carcass of turkey contains a higher percentage of protein than the
carcass of chicken, they have large size, high carcass quality, fast grow rate
and high resistance to diseases. Turkey have also been found to be considered
economic and social significance in the traditional life of Nigerians, in that
they are used as presents during festivals like Christmas, both as a sign of
appreciation and expression of goodwill. In spite of all these attributes of
the local Turkey in the diet of Nigerians, its production has remained very low
compared to other poultry species. Reducing the crude protein content of turkey
diets as supplementing with increase in essential amino acids (methionine and
lysine) would lead to reduction in ammonia excreted and also result in increased
utilization in growth performance of turkey such as breast meat yield. However,
as indicated above, Amino acids are very important to normal physiological
functioning of birds. The deficiency of these amino acids in poultry lead to loss of appetite, retarded growth,
poor feed utilization, abdominal fat, increased incidence of feather pecking,
and reduction in egg production in layers.
Inadequate supply of these amino acids also poses a serious problem to
birds including death in some cases. Thus, to prevent nutritional deficiencies,
or to correct when deficiency symptoms arise, feeding a balanced poultry ration
that contains essential amino acids to birds is inevitable. Arising from the
statement above, this study is therefore justifiable.
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