ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER GASTROPOD VECTOR OF SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM IN AFIKPO NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA.

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ABSTRACT


The study aimed at surveying the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium, freshwater snail vector of S. haematobium, physio-chemical properties of freshwater and factors influencing the transmission and spread of S. haematobium in Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State from February 2016 to January 2017. The subjects’ urine were examined for S. haematobium through centrifugation and sedimentation. Of 504 persons randomly screened for S. haematobium, 20 (3.97%) were infected. Males were more infected 12 (4.8%) than the females 8 (3.15%). Sex was not statistically associated with prevalence of S. haematobium (X2 = .901, df= 1, P> 0.05). The average intensity/10ml count among those infected was 21eggs/10ml of urine. The intensity of infection (8.1) was highest in age group 14-16 yrs.  There was no significant relationship that exist between the age and the prevalence of S. haematobium (X2 = 1.506, df= 4, P> 0.05). There exist a significant relationship between sources of water and the prevalence of S. haematobium (P< 0.05). There was no significant relationship between occupation of the parents and the prevalence of S. haematobium (P> 0.05). Prevalence of S. haematobium was high in February 3 (7.8%) and low in October 1(1.85%). There was no significant relationship between the season and the prevalence of S. haematobium (P> 0.05). This study revealed freshwater snails with particular reference to Bulinus species. A survey of snail abundance in relation to location/sampling site showed that Ohia stream had the highest abundance of snail with a total of 44 snails while Iyi Akpoha had the least abundance of snails with 27 snails. Each of the Bulinus species was placed in a glass beaker filled with 100ml of water, and then exposed to sunlight for 30mins which facilitated shedding of cercariae and examined. A survey of the infection rate of Bulinus species collected in different sampling sites showed that out of 102 Bulinus species collected 11 (10.8%) were infected. Ohia sample location had the highest infection rate of Bulinus species 5 (15.6%) and the least was in Iyi Akpoha 0(0%). There was no significant relationship between sampling sites and the rate of snail infection (P> 0.05). Bulinus species infection rate in relation to month/season was high in December 1 (25%). A survey of snail abundance in relation to physico-chemical properties which include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity and conductivity was conducted. There was no significant relationship between physico-chemical properties of water and snails abundance as well as infected snail (P>0.05). The most densely occurring macrophyte was Carex austro-africana. The result revealed that increase in aquatic macrophytes yielded concomitant increase in the snail abundance (P< 0.05). Based on the findings of this study, it is evident that prevalence of S. haematobium infections in the area is low. Therefore, effort should be intensified to maintain levels below threshold and eradicate urinary schistosomiasis in Afikpo North L.G.A. Ebonyi State.





TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page                                                                                            

Title Page                                                                                               i

Declaration                                                                                             ii

Certification                                                                                           iii

Dedication                                                                                             iv

Acknowledgements                                                                               v

Table of Contents                                                                                  vii

List of Tables                                                                                         xi

List of Figures                                                                                        xiii

List of Plates                                                                                          xiv

Abstract                                                                                                 xv

CHAPTER   1                                                                                        1

INTRODUCTION                                                                                 1

1.0 Statement of Problem                                                                        4

1.1 Aim and Objectives                                                                           4

1.2 Significance of Study                                                                         5

1.3 Justification                                                                                        6

CHAPTER 2                                                                                           7

LITERATURE REVIEW                                                                      7

2.1 Brief History of Schistosomiasis                                                        7

2.2 Global Distribution of Schistosomiasis                                              10

2.3 Schistosomiasis in Nigeria                                                                  13       

2.4 Transmission of Schistosomiasis                                                         15

2.5 Reservoir Host of Schistosomes                                                           18

2.6 Pathogenesis of Schistosomiasis                                                          19

2.7 Public Health Significance of Schistosomiasis                                    23

2.8 Diagnosis of Schistosomiasis                                                               23

2.9 Treatment and Control of Schistosomiasis                                           24

2.10 Ecology and Distribution of Freshwater Gastropods

of Medical Importance                                                                 26

2.10.1 Bulinus species                                                                                 27

2.10.2 Biomphalaria species                                                                        29

2.10.3 Oncomelania                                                                                     30

2.10.4 Tricula                                                                                               31

2.11 Review of Distribution of Snail Intermediate Host of Schistosomes. 31

2.12 Physico-chemical Properties of Freshwater                                         32

 2.13 Aquatic Macrophytes                                                                          36    

2.14 Food and Feeding Habits of Snail                                                        36

2.15 Control of Intermediate Host (Snails)                                                   37

CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL AND METHODS                                                                 42

3.1 Study Area                                                                                              42

3.2 Ethical Approval                                                                                     45

3.3 Data Collection                                                                                        45

3.4 Sampling Techniques of Urine                                                                45                                                                                                 

3.5 Urine Sample Size Determination                                                            46

3.6 Examination of Urine Sample for S. haematobium                                 46                                         

3.7 Malacological Sampling                                                                           47

3.8 Collection and Identification of Aquatic Macrophtes                              51 

3.9 Physico- Chemical Parameters of the Water Bodies                               52

3.9.1 Examination of snails                                                                           52

3.9.2 Measurement of chemical parameters of water                                    52

3.10. Statistical Analysis                                                                               56

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION                                                                  57

4.1 Parasitological Survey                                                                             57

4.1.1. Community school related prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis.    57

4.1.2. Age related prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis                             63

4.1.3. Gender related infection rate of urinary schistosomiasis                    65

4.1.4. Sources of water supply related infection rate                                    68

4.1.5. Prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis in relation to

occupation of parents                                                                    71

4.1.6. Seasonal/Monthly prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis                 74

4.2. Malacological Survey                                                                           80

4.2.1. Snail abundance in relation to month                                                 80

4.2.2. Snail abundance in relation to location and

           cercariae shedding of Bulinus species                                               83

4.2.3. Snail abundance in relation to physico-chemical

 properties of water                                                                        91

4.2.4. Bulinus species shedding of cercariae in relation to

physico-chemical properties of water                                            107

4.2.5. Snail abundance in relation to aquatic macrophytes                           110                                                                                               

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS                                       120

5.0. Conclusion                                                                                              120

5.1. Recommendations                                                                                   121

        REFERENCES                                                                                     123 

        APPENDIX                                                                                            141                              

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

 

4.1: Prevalence rate of S. haematobium infection by Community

School in Afikpo North L.G.A. Ebonyi State.                                    59

 4.2: Age specific prevalence and intensity of

S. haematobium infection.                                                                   64

 4.3: Gender- related prevalence of S. haematobium.                                        67

 4.4. Prevalence of S. haematobium infection

according to sources of water supply.                                                70        

 4.5: Urinary Schistosomiasis infection relation to

occupation of parents.                                                                        73

 4.6: Urine samples collected seasonally in each

School/sampling location.                                                                 76

 4.7: Prevalence of Urinary Schistosomiasis in

wet and dry season in Afikpo North L.G.A. Ebonyi State.              79

4.8: Monthly/ Seasonal collection of snails in

different sampling sites in relation to cercariae

shedding in Afikpo North L.G.A. Ebonyi State.                               86

4.9: Infection rate of Bulinus species in different sampling sites.                    87                                                                                        

                     4.10: Monthly/Seasonal collection of snails in relation to

Bulinus species infection in Afikpo North      L.G.A.                        88

 4.11: pH values of water samples collected

monthly/seasonally in each sampling location                                  92

 4.12. Temperature of water samples collected

monthly/seasonally in each sampling  location                                   93

 4.13. Dissolved oxygen mg/l of water samples collected

 monthly/seasonally in each sampling location                                   95

 4.14. Alkalinity values of water samples collected

monthly/seasonally in each sampling location                                    96

 4.15. Conductivity values of water samples collected

monthly/seasonally in each sampling location                                    98                    

 4.16. Relationship between snail abundance,

snail that shed cercariae and average water quality values.               101

 4.17. Relationship between Bulinus species

that shed cercariae and average water quality value.                         109

 4.18. Specie abundance of aquatic macrophytes in

relation to snail abundance                                                                 115

                                                                       

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

 

 1: Map showing global distribution of schistosomiasis                              12

 2: Life cycle of Schistosoma species.                                                         17

 3: Map of Afikpo North L.G.A. Ebonyi State.                                            44

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


LIST OF PLATES

 

 1: Drying Ugwagwo pond in Ezeke Eziukwu Amasiri                          48

 2: Uke Ezego stream in Ibii                                                                    48

 3: Ohia stream in Amasiri showing aquatic vegetation                          49

 4: Iyi Ogologo in Akpoha showing aquatic vegetations                        49

 5: Iyi Akpoha in Amogu Akpoha                                                           50

 6:  Egg of Schistosoma haematobium                                                    58                                                                                                                               

 7: Schistosoma haematobium egg in urine                                             58

 8: Snails of Bulinus species collected in the study area                          82

 9: Furcocercous cercariae from the infected snail                                  85

 10: Carex austro-africana                                                                      112

 11: Aspilia africana                                                                                 112

 12: Nymphae lotus                                                                                   113

 13: Co-existence of Carex austro-africana,

Aspilia africana, Eleocharis acutangular,

Typha latifolia and Mimosa Pudica in Iyi Ogologo Akpoha.  113

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

Freshwater molluscs are those members of phylum Mollusca which dwell in freshwater habitats both lentic (stagnant water) and lotic water (flowing water). Gastropod is a class of molluscs in freshwater that harbours and transmits infective stages of some animal parasites to human. The role of freshwater molluscs in public and vetrinary health cannot be overlooked and needs to be precisely studied (Supian and Ikhwanuddin, 2002; El-Khayat et al, 2011). Various species of the class gastropoda have been known to harbor trematode organisms. The families of Pildae and Thiaridae were recorded to harbor larval trematodes (Subba-Rao, 1993; Mostafa, 2009). There are several ecological influences that disturb snails and other transitional hosts of parasites which affect their distributions. These factors are temperature, rate of water flow, turbidity, transparency, distribution of suspended solids, ion concentration, dissolved gases in water, availability of food, and predator-prey interactions (Ofoezie, 1999; Garg et al., 2009). Besides, aquatic macrophytes play vital roles in the distribution of snails in different parts of Africa (Ofoezie 1999). However, the significance of various environmental factors differ from one environmental area to the other and even from one aquatic habitat to the other. This signifies that extensive study of these ecological communities’ needs to be carried out to detect essential influences in each community or water bodies (Ofoezie, 1999; Hussien et al., 2011). Many researches relating to ecology and changing aspects in population of freshwater snails which show significant roles in transferring infections to man and his livestock have been carried out by Abd El-Malek (1958), Dazo et al.1966; Barbosa and Barbosa1994); Utzinger et al. (1997); Kloos et al. (2001); Karimi et al., (2004); Cañete et al. (2004) Kazibwe et al. 2006 and Mostafa, 2009). These ecological researches have led to the general opinion that the advance of a real approach of collective control needs the study of ecological dissemination of the transitional hosts and its relation to ecological influences. Ecological distribution of these organisms rest on the physical topography of a certain region. Landscape, soil structure, hydrography and climatic conditions have influence on freshwater snail distribution (El-Khayat et al., 2011).

Usually, changes in climate affect the humans or animals and the snail populations (Chandiwana et al., 1987; Garg et al., 2009). Despite this known seasonality of transmission of snail-borne infections due to climate, there appears to be a circadian rhythm of discharge of parasite eggs and peak abundance of infective larvae in the habitats at given times (Owojori et al., 2006).

The biological advantage of these rhythms is that they are means of facilitating transmission.  The other implication is that they show that the snails are always existing for the miracidia hatching out of trematode eggs within defined periods that support abundance of snails. It thus becomes imperative that for any identified snail habitat, a full understanding of the snail population dynamics, the bionomics and other biotic interactions are important in the overall assessment of the habitat with respect to its role in snail-borne disease transmission.

Macro dissemination of freshwater snails has become the subject of many surveys. In most habitats, it has been discovered that these snails are limited by temperature, rainfall and drought. For this reason, most snail species will fail to inhabit some habitats and become abundant in other habitats. It is therefore, very important that factors of the environment that affect the macro dissemination of freshwater gastropods in any environment are investigated and used to understand the biological interactions within the habitats. While serious consideration is given to the macro distribution of snail genera and species, a lot more attention needs to be paid to the micro distribution parameters of the species. For example, it will be highly instructive to understand the factors that support oviposition, egg hatching and survival of the young snails in their preferred habitats. In his studies, Chase (2007) found that thermic stability appeared to determine substrate selection in adult gastropods and it would be interesting to find out if the young snails are similarly affected. According to Chase (2007) the number of eggs and juveniles increase with the increase in temperature during the morning (from 6.30 am), and with decrease of temperature later in the morning (around 10.00 am). This finding suggests the need to study the roles of temperature in the freshwater habitat. Certain habitat factors may clearly correlate differently between eggs, juveniles and adults. For example, in land gastropods, it has been noted that humidity of litters and soil and season correlate mainly more for eggs than other stages (El-Khayat et al., 2011).

 

1.0.STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

 Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. People are infected during routine agricultural, domestic, occupational, and recreational activities, which expose them to infested water. Schistosomiasis is a disease associated with poor environmental sanitation and increased development of water resources to meet the demands of man. (WHO, 2018) Schistosomiasis affects many communities in Afikpo North L.G.A. especially farmers and those living near water causing illness that prevent people from farming, attending to schools, performing other activities, and at times gives rise to malignancies which are fatal (Utzinger et al., 2015). Schistosomiasis being a public health problem in Nigeria has not yet been  controlled due to factors like infection and re-infection which is as a result of the vector; freshwater gastropods which facilitate transmission. The study of the ecological distribution of freshwater gastropod vector of Schistosoma haematobium will assist in integrating effective control approach to eradicate urinary schistosomiasis. In order words intermediate host control is schistosomiasis control.


1.1. AIM AND OBJECTIVES: The aim of this research work was to determine the true picture of urinary schistosomiasis in the study area using school children below 16 years and to investigate the factors that enhance the transmission of S. haematobium in Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State.

The objectives of this study were as follows:

1.      To determine the prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium among school children below 16 years in Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State.

2.      To determine prevalence of water snail vector of S. haematobium in Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State.

3.      To ascertain the physico-chemical properties of the surrounding water bodies of the Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State.

4.      To determine factors influencing the transmission and spread of S. haematobium in Afikpo North Local Government Area, Ebonyi State.


1.2. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Schistosomiasis, a water-based disease is spread  through  contact  with  water  in  which  snails  harboring  and  shedding  the infective  stage  (cercariae)  of  the  parasite  (Schistosoma)  are  present. Several factors such as social, environmental and behavioral directly influence the prevalence and intensity of schistosomiasis. It is important that these factors be identified to aid in designing control programmes. Environmental conditions and sewage disposal are deplorable, indiscriminate defaecation and urination are very common, the literacy level is very low and there is inadequate safe/potable water with consequent effects on the population. Most of the water bodies in Afikpo North harbor the snail intermediate host, and this helps to increase the prevalence of schistosomiasis. The study on Ecological distribution of the snails is to ascertain the true picture of the disease in relation to presence of S. haematobium vector and prevalence in Afikpo North L.G.A. Ebonyi State.


1.3. JUSTIFICATION

The most significant trematodes in Nigeria from a clinical point of view are bloodflukes, Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium. Investigations from researchers have shown the intensity and prevalence of Schistosomiasis in most parts of the country. Nigeria is estimated to have the highest number of people infected with Neglected Tropical Diseases in Africa which is a group of parasitic and bacterial infections that affect the world’s poorest populations. Nigeria has the highest burden of endemicity of schistosomiasis (WHO 2015; Hotez and Aruna 2009). Some of the investigations of freshwater snails and Schistosomiasis in Nigeria include those of Hira (1970) and Adewunmi et al (1990) for South West city and its environs, Okwuosa and Ukoli (1980) for Lagos, Ogun and Oyo States, Ndifon (1989) for South Western Nigeria, Nmorsi et al (2005) in Edo State, Okafor (1990), Denis et al (2013) in Anambra State, Nduka et al (2008), Ivoke et al (2014) in Ebonyi State.

 

 

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