ABSTRACT
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
List of Plates x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of
the Study 1
1.1.1
Waste
materials used in aquaculture 3
1.1.2 The chemical composition of chicken manure 3
3.1 1.1.3 Nutrient
content of swine manure 5
1.1.4 Benefits and potentials of utilising insects as an alternative protein
source 5
1.2 Statement of Problems 6
3.2 1.3 Justification
of the Study 6
3.3
1.4 Aim and Objectives 7
1.4.1 Specific objectives 7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Livestock Farming
and Feed Production 8
2.2 Use of Maggots in Animal Production and
Aquaculture 8
2.2.1 Life cycle of housefly 10
2.2.2
Taxonomy 11
2.3 Nutrient Composition of Maggots 12
2.4
Utilisation of
Maggot Meal in Fish Diets 14
2.5
Factors Affecting Maggot Production 15
2.6
Heavy Metal
Content in Animal Manure 16
2.7
Sources of Heavy
Metal Exposure to Humans 18
2.7.1
Sources of specific heavy metals 18
2.7.1.1 Lead 18
2.7.1.2 Cadmium 19
2.7.1.3 Chromium 19
2.7.1.4 Copper 20
2.8
Routes of
Exposure, Bio-Uptake and Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals
in Humans 20
2.9
Animal Husbandry
in Aquaculture 21
2.10 Classification of Nutrients in Poultry 24
2.11 Classification of Nutrients in Piggery 26
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS
AND METHODS
3.1
Area of the
Study 27
3.2
Construction of
Wooden Culture Boxes 28
3.3 Experimental Procedure 30
3.4 Production
of Maggot 32
3.5
Conversion of
Swine, Broiler and Layer Manure by Maggots 32
3.6
Heavy Metal
Analysis 32
3.6.1 Digestion procedure 32
3.6.2 Atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS) Procedure 33
3.6.3
Preparation of STANDARDS for AAS Calibration 34
3.7 Statistical Analysis 35
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Results 36
4.2 Discussion 44
4.2.1 Capacity of maggot production 44
4.2.2 Heavy metal and NPK in manure 46
CHAPTER
5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 51
5.2 Recommendations 51
REFERENCES 51
LIST
OF TABLES
Table Page No.
4.1: Weight of maggot production (g) 36
4.2: Levels
of total heavy metals in manure samples (mg/l) in fresh and
used
pig, broiler and layers in raising M.
domestica larvae for five-day 40
4.3: Levels of NPK in manure samples (mg/kg) in
fresh and used pig, broiler
and layers in raising M. domestica
larvae for five days 42
4.4: Levels of NPK in manure samples (mg/kg) in
fresh and used pig, broiler
and layers in raising M. domestica larvae per variable
/element for
five days 43
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page No.
3.1: Map
showing area of the study 27
4.1: Concentration
of heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, copper,
and lead) (mg.kg-1)
in chicken layer manure, before and after
the culture of Musca domestica
larvae 37
4.2: Concentration of heavy metals (cadmium, chromium,
copper,
and lead) (mg.kg-1) in
chicken Broiler manure, before and
after the culture of Musca domestica larvae 38
4.3: Concentration
of heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, copper,
and
lead) (mg.kg-1) in pig manure, before and after the
culture
of
Musca
domestica larvae 39
4.4: Variation
in Treatment 3 with respect to maggot yield and total
heavy
metal 41
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Page No.
1: Maggot
production box 29
2: A
pan for maggot production 31
CHAPTER 1
1.1 BACKGROUND
OF THE STUDY
Manure is an unavoidable by-product of
livestock and poultry production, as well as a vital organic matter source and
fertilizer for crop and pasture growth. Environmental protection has made
manure management a need (Cang et al.,
2004; Farzan et al., 2010). It's
considered a complete fertilizer because it combines the benefits of both
organic and inorganic fertilizers and can be used without the usage of
chemicals (FAO, 2003).
In the European Union (EU), livestock
production creates roughly 1400 million tons of manure per year (Foged et al., 2012), and excess manure can be adopted
as basis of organic manure or substrates for maggot development. Fertilizer
treatment, energization, and compressive techniques are among the most commonly
used technologies to date (Charlton et
al., 2015), as a result of their rich nutritional contents, such as
nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K), animal manures are primarily
employed as organic fertilizers for agricultural production in a given nations
like France (Kumar et al., 2013;
Loyon, 2016).
Poultry dung has the potential to be a
protein source. It has piqued the interest of animal nutritionists across the
globe due to its high protein, calcium (5.4%), potassium such as potassium
oxide (K2O), magnesium as MgO (0.335%), and mineral content (Garrett
et al., 1997). Recently, fish farming
systems, especially integrated farming systems, have been stimulated to reprocess
waste from animal dungs, especially poultry and pig, as food for fish rather
than discarding them (Adenji 2007).
However, some components in manure (heavy
metals, antibiotics, and infections) are detrimental to human health and
ecosystems, limiting its development and use (Eneji et al., 2013; Kumar et al.,
2013). Heavy metals like zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd),
lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and arsenic (As) were found in high concentrations in
swine dung, according to Cang et al.
(2004). Heavy metals were also found to reach the environment through manure,
with levels of Cu, Zn, As, Cd, and Cr in manure increasing quickly between 1990
and 2010, particularly in pig and poultry dung (Zhang et al., 2012a; Wang et al
2014).
Furthermore, the
untreated application of swine manure, which contains high levels of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (NPK), to agricultural output causes eutrophication
(Smith et al., 2007). Manure
continues to be a substantial basis of pollution. Manure management methods
that are relatively innocuous and optimize resource usage are required for the
long-term viability of animal production. The conversion of manure by insects
is a quick and cost-effective way of manure management. Many insects can help
reduce manure volume and turn it into high-quality fertilizer. Houseflies (Musca domestica) are the greatest
diversified flies, capable of converting decomposing organic materials into
animal-derived nourishment (Hussein et al.,
2017). They are simple to yield and process (Aniebo and Owen, 2010; Anene et al., 2013) and significantly less
expensive than other animal protein sources (Ajani et al., 2004).
Pig dung (Pastor et al., 2011), cattle blood and wheat
bran (Aniebo and Owen, 2010), poultry manure (Hwangbo et al., 2009), and cattle gut and rumen content are only some of
the organic wastes that maggot can live on (Anene et al., 2013; Hussein et al.,
2017). Maggots can be produced from decaying organic matter such as animal
dungs or faeces (cow, pig and chicken) or any exposed food materials selected
as breeding grounds (Madu and Akilo, 2001). The maggot nourishes on organic
waste, in which it finds itself taking in only fluid and tiny particles. Waste
is defined by Adler and Sikora (2004), as materials that are no longer needed
but may be used as feedstock or raw material elsewhere. Wastes, according to
(Bolan et al., 2004), do not
necessarily signify useless or worthless items, as waste in one location may be
utilized as a feedstock or raw material in another.
1.2.1 Waste materials used in aquaculture
Excretory or faecal
waste accounts for a portion of the nutritious content of poultry feed. These
nutrients can help fish farming by acting as fertilizers, encouraging the
growth of natural food species like phytoplankton and detritus. On such natural
feeds alone, a variety of carps and tilapias can thrive (Eneji et al., 2013).
The yearly growth of
fish as well as their natural feeds is ensured by steady and increasing water
temperatures and sunlight. The tropics are best for cultivating fish using
poultry manure as an input since typical water temperatures remain over 25°C,
but it is also done in sub-tropical and sub-temperature climes during favourable
times of the year (20°C).
Poultry, swine
wastes, and by-products can all be used to feed aquaculture at various
intensities. Poultry and swine manure may promote fish production in many ways,
both indirectly and directly. Fresh or processed poultry and pig dung can be
used in sun-lit tropical ponds for natural food production. Although some
nutrients can be obtained directly from garbage, natural foods based on
waste-derived nutrients are more important. Carps and tilapias, which feed low
in the food web, gain the most from this sort of management because they can
successfully consume plankton, benthic, and detrital food species (Ahmed et al., 2013).
1.1.2 The chemical composition of chicken manure
The chemical
composition of poultry manure differs based on factors such as the source of
manure, the feed given to the animals, the animals' age, condition,
storage/handling methods, and litter use (Mariakulandai and Manickam, 1997).
Fresh poultry manure contains about 77-80 percent water, but 5 percent of the
dry matter is nitrogen, 3.9 percent is phosphorus, and 2.4 percent is potassium
(Kroodsma, 1986). Uric acid and urea account for about 60–70% of the total
nitrogen emitted in poultry manures (Nahm, 2003). Chicken manure has a crude
protein level of more than 20%, making it suitable for fish production.
Chicken manure comprises
an increasing ratio of manufactured soluble vitamins and has an energy content
of 110-140kcal kg-1 manure (Tuleun, 1992). Fish feed straight on manure
detritus and nutrients released into the system, fresh manure leads to promote fish
development than fermented or stored manure (Yejin et al 1987). During storage, the nutritional value (physical,
chemical as well as biological quality) of animal dung normally degrades. Under
some climatic conditions, nitrogen loss (in the form of ammonia, nitrate, and
nitrite volatilization) can be as high as 90% (FAO, 2003).
When chicken dung is
dumped into a pond, it undergoes microbial breakdown, providing nutrients for
the growth of microscopic green plants (Algae or phytoplankton), which are the
foundation of the aquatic trophic level (food chain) (Aquaculture South Africa,
1999). Zooplankton (microscopic organisms) devour phytoplankton, while
zooplankton provides food for small fish and aquatic insects, that is to say
that decaying decomposition of chicken dung releases both phyto and zooplankton.
The incorporation of
manure as well as other nutrients boosts the production of phytoplankton, the
pond's primary productivity, which is then devoured by larger fish. The primary
nutrients released by microbial decomposition of manure are nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium (Boyd, 1982). Secondary nutrients include calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S), while heavy metals such as copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) are minor nutrients (Fe).
Nitrogen and
phosphorus fertilizers are necessary to encourage greater phytoplankton growth
in ponds without feeding. They are also used early in the production cycle in
feed-based pond production to stimulate phytoplankton that is base of the food
web providing natural food organisms beneficial to fish fry and shrimp, but
because nitrogen is more volatile than phosphorus, the fish yield is probably
more directly associated to manure nitrogen level.
1.1.3 Nutrient
content of swine manure
Swine manure contains
13 essential plant nutrients required by plants. Nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S), manganese (Mn),
copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), chlorine (Cl), boron (B), iron (Fe), and molybdenum
(Mo) are examples of these elements (Mo) (Zhang and Zhao, 2007).
Plant nutrients come
from the animals’ food, supplements, medications, and drinking water. Using
swine manure as a fertilizer for crops, trees, or fish ponds can meet part or
all of a plant or animal's nutritional needs. The amount of nutrients delivered
is determined on the manure's nutrient content. The amount of nutrients in
swine dung depends on the animal's age, ration, temperature, collection and
storage methods, and moisture content (Zhang and Zhao 2007).
1.1.4 Benefits and potentials of utilising insects as an alternative protein
source
Insects are highly
nutritious, abundant in protein that is in certain cases higher in quantity and
quality than that found in standard protein sources (fish meal and soy meal)
(Van et al., 2013). (Makkar et al., 2014). Because of their high fat
content, insects are also good basis of vitamins, minerals including calcium,
and energy (Van et al., 2013).
Insects also eat
organic trash, which helps to clean up the environment (Mutafela, 2015).
Because of their incredibly effective feed-to-protein conversion rates, they
release fewer greenhouse emissions than typical cattle, making them more
environmentally friendly (Meyer and Reguant-closa, 2017).
They are also
abundant in large numbers; they can easily multiply in a small space in a short
amount of time (Durst et al., 2010);
and they can be seen in arrays of habitats and settings, including aquatic,
terrestrial, and aerial. Because it is a low-tech, low-capital investment
option, insect collection and rearing might provide livelihood options for the
lower sectors of society (Van et al.,
2013).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
The cost of feed and
its availability is critical in aquaculture production and development (FAO, 2007).
Aquaculture faced production depends currently on fish and soy meal as the primary
protein ingredient. However, conventional protein sources have become scarce
and relatively expensive (Davis, 2015), and this has in no small way affected
fish production in most West Africa regions, particularly in Nigeria. The use
of larvae reared from pig, broiler, and layer manure can be an effective
protein source for fish and a cost-effective feed. Organic waste, such as
animal manure, on the other hand, often contains persistent contaminants like
heavy metals, which can accumulate in larvae and enter the food chain.
The terrestrial
organisms ingest contaminants orally (bio-magnification), aquatic organisms
through diffusion (bio-concentration) and consumption of organisms feeding lesser
in the food chain that had consumed the contaminants. This research evaluated
the bio-magnification potential of larvae reared using animal manure and the
different levels of heavy metal and fertilizer elements concentration in pig,
broiler and layer manure and manure to produce the highest number maggots.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Metals like Lead,
Cadmium, Copper, Selenium, Chromium and fertilizer elements N P K have been
proven to be environmentally toxic among the metals commonly occurring in chicken
manure (Ofor and Oke, 2018). This research work will justify the possibility of
larvae raised on animal manure which is the substrate to concentrate or magnify
contaminants.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This research aims to
determine the maggot production potential of swine, chicken layer, and chicken
broiler manures and the composition of maggots reared on the three different
animal manures. The specific objectives were to:
i.
Determine and compare the capacity of layer, broiler and pig
manure as substrate for the rearing of M.
domestica larvae.
ii.
Determine the levels of selected metals in maggots reared in
the three animal manures, and
iii.
Determine the levels of fertilizer elements N, P, and K in
layer, broiler and pig manure
Login To Comment