ABSTRACT
The study assessed women’s participation in agricultural production activities in the remediated parts of Ogoni-land of Rivers State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study were to: describe the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents; examine the type of farming activities the women participate in, identify the factors influencing women participation in farming operations in the remediated Ogoni-land, ascertain women farmers perception of the clean-up and remediation activities; assess the level of access to farm inputs; and ascertain the extent of extension delivery services available to women in the study area. A sample of 400 farmers were randomly selected through a multi-stage random sampling technique. Primary data were collected through the use of a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Simple linear as well as Ordinary Least Square Regression analysis and ANOVA were used to test the hypotheses. The result showed that the respondents had a mean age of 44.5 years, 58.25% were Christians. 68.00% belonged to one cooperative organization or the other, and had a mean farming experience of 10.5 years. The women participated to a low extent in all the farming activities with a grand mean score of 1.29. All the factors presented to the respondents influenced their participation in farming activities in Ogoni-land with a grand mean score of 3.93. The women farmers had negative perception ( = 1.31) about the clean-up and remediation activities, and the level of access to farm inputs was low ( = 1.43), while the extent of extension delivery services available to the women was also low as indicated by a grand mean score of 1.32. The simple linear regression analysis showed that there was a significant relationship between the level of access to farm input and their level of participation in farming activities at 5% level. The OLS regression analysis also showed that significant relationship existed between selected socio-economic characteristics of respondents and women’s level of participation in farming activities at 5% level. Moreover, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) test of significance showed that significant differences existed in the respondents rating between factors influencing respondents’ participation in farming activities across the four Local Government Areas with an F-value of 8.379 at 1% level of significance, thus the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate accepted. Furthermore, ANOVA test result of non-significance was established in the respondents’ perception of the clean-up and remediated activity across the four Local Government Area with a non-significant F-value of 2.489 at 5% level. The study concluded that the participation of women in all the farming activities in the remediated Ogoni-land was low and that they had low access to farm inputs in the study area. It was, thus, recommended that the women be helped in the form of financial interventions, to move them away from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture in order to improve their livelihoods. Government and other input delivery agencies should also make farming inputs available to these farmers at a subsidized rate, so that they can improve their farming production.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
Abstract xii
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1
Background
of the Study 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Research Questions 7
1.4
Objectives of the Study 7
1.5 Hypotheses of the Study 8
1.6
Significance of the Study 8
1.7 Scope of the Study 10
1.8 Definition of Terms 10
1.9 Limitations
of the Study 12
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW 14 2.1 Conceptual Review 15
2.1.1
The
Niger Delta people and environment 15
2.1.2
History
of oil exploration in Nigeria 18
2.1.3 Public perception of oil
companies in the Niger Delta 22
2.1.4 Environmental degradation
and problem of underdevelopment 25
2.1.5 The Niger Delta economy 29
2.1.6 Effects of oil
exploitation and environmental degradation in the
Niger Delta 30
2.1.7 Impacts of oil exploitation
on the environment 39
2.1.8 The effects of environmental
degradation on Niger Delta women 43
2.1.9
Women’s agricultural activities 45
2.1.10
Problems of agricultural development in Nigeria 52
2.1.11
Women participation in agricultural decision making 54
2.1.12
Women access to extension services 56
2.1.13 Oil exploration and causes of oil spills in Nigeria 57
2.1.14 Clean-up and recovery process 59
2.2 Review
of Empirical Studies 62
2.3 Review
of Related Theories 65
2.3.1 System
theory 65
2.3.2
Empowerment theory 66
2.3.3
Ecocentrism 67
2.3.4
Anthropocentrism 68
2.3.5
Modernization theory 70
2.3.6 Dependency
theory 71
2.4 Conceptual
Framework 72
CHAPTER 3:
METHODOLOGY 76
3.1 Area of Study 76
3.2 Population of the Study 80
3.3 Sample
and Sampling Technique 80
3.4
Data Collection 81
3.5 Validity of the Instrument 81
3.6
Reliability of the Instrument 82
3.7 Measurement
of Variables 82
3.8 Data
Analysis 84
3.9
Hypotheses Testing 85
3.10 Model Specification 86
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 90
4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics
of the Respondents 90
4.1.1 Age 90
4.1.2 Marital status 92
4.1.3 Educational qualification 92
4.1.4 Religion 92
4.1.5 Household size 93
4.1.6 Cooperative membership 94
4.1.7 Farming experience 94
4.1.8 Farm size 95
4.1.9 Farm income 95
4.1.10 Major occupation 96
4.2 Types
of Farming Activities the Women Farmers Participate in, within
the Remediated
Ogoni-Land 96
4.3 Factors Influencing Woman’s Participation
in Farming Operations in the Remediated Ogoni-Land 99
4.4 Perception
of Clean-up and Remediated Activities by Respondents in the
Study Area 103
4.5 Level
of Access to Farm Inputs by the Women Farmers in the Study Area 107
4.6 Extent
of Extension Delivery Services Available to Women Farmers in the
Study Area 110
4.7.1 Testing
hypothesis 1 113
4.7.2 Testing
hypothesis 2 114
4.7.3 Testing
hypothesis 3 118
4.7.4 Testing
hypothesis 4 121
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 123
5.1 Summary 123
5.2 Conclusion 126
5.3 Recommendations 126
References 128
Appendices 143
LIST
OF TABLES
4.1: Distribution of respondents according to
socio-economic characteristics
of
respondents 91
4.2: Mean score responses of the respondents on
the types of farming activities/enterprise the Ogoni women farmers
participated in, within
the remediated environment 98
4.3: Mean scores responses of the factors
influencing farming activities of
women farmers in the remediated Ogoni-land 100
4.4: Mean scores responses of
the respondents on their perception of clean-up
and
remediation activities 105
4.5: Mean score responses of the respondents on
the level of access to farm
inputs by women farmers
in the study area 109
4.6: Mean scores responses of the respondents
on the extent of extension
delivery services available to
women farmers 112
4.7: Simple linear regression estimates of access
to farm inputs and level of women participation in farming activities in
the study area 114
4.8: Ordinary Least Square regression estimates
of selected socio-economic
characteristics
and the level of women participation in farming activities
in the study area 117
4.9: Result of ANOVA
for test of significant of difference in the respondents’
Rating of factors influencing participation
in farming operations across the
four Local Government Areas of Ogoni-land 119
4.10: Result of differences in the respondents’
rating between the factors
Influencing
respondents participation in farming operations among the
four
Local Government Areas of Ogoni-land using Post hoc multiple
comparism test 120
4.11: Result of ANOVA
for test of significance of difference in the respondents’
perception
of the clean-up and remediation activities across the four Local
Government
Areas of Ogoni-land 121
4.12: Result of differences in the respondents’ perception of the clean-up
and
remediation
active activities among the four Local Government Areas of
Ogoni-land
using Post hoc multiple comparism test 122
LIST
OF FIGURES
PAGE
2.1: A Conceptual framework for the assessment
of women’s participation in
agricultural production activities in the
remediated parts of Ogoni-land of
Rivers
State, Nigeria. 75
3.1: Map of Nigeria showing Ogoni-land (the study area in red) 78
3.2: Map of Ogoni-land (the study area) 79
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Ogoni-land which is situated in
the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is very strategic to the economic life of the
nation. It is the major source of oil which is the pillar of Nigeria’s economy.
The region became a focal point of discussion in the world due to the
degradation of its environment and the subsequent recommendation for land
remediation by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2011). Ogoni-land
received more international attention after a massive public protest or
campaign led by the Movement
for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) against Shell Petroleum Development Company
(International Crisis Group, 2006).
The oil and
gas exploration in Nigeria began with the establishment of the Nigerian Bitumen
Company by a German business group in 1908 to handle the exploration of coastal
areas between Lagos and Okitipupa, in Ondo State (Paki and Ebienfa, 2011).
Today, over five multinational oil companies and subsidiaries operate in Ogoni-land.
They include Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC), Nigeria Agip Oil
Company (NAOC), Total E/P Nigeria Limited, Chevron among others (Federal office
of Statistics, 2012)
In the four
decades of oil exploration in Nigeria, the Directorate of Petroleum Resources
(DPR) recorded over 6,000 spills with an average of 150 spills annually (Imobighe,
2011). In the period 1976-1996, 647 incidents occurred, resulting in the
spillage of 2,369,000 barrels of crude oil (Atakpo and Ayolabi, 2009). Of this
volume of oil spillage, 549,000 barrels were recovered, while 1,820,410 barrels
drained into the ecosystem (Atakpo and Ayolabi, 2009).
Nigeria experienced the
first oil spill in Araromi in the present day Ondo State in 1908 (Tolulope,
2004). In July 1979, the Forcados tank 6 terminal in Delta State incidence
spilled 570,000 barrels of crude oil into the Forcados estuary, contaminating
the aquatic environment and neighboring swamp forest (Ukoli, 2005; Tolulope,
2004). The Funiwa No.5 oil-well in Funiwa Field spilled out an estimated 421,000
barrels of crude oil into the ocean from January 17-30 January 1980. When the
oil flow ceased, 836 acres of mangrove swamp forest within six miles off the coastline
was destroyed (Ukoli, 2005; Gabriel, 2004; Tolulope, 2004). In August 1983,
Oshika community in River State experienced a spillage of 5,000 barrels of crude
oil from Ebocha-Brass (Ogada-Brass 24) pipeline which covered the lake and
swamp woodland. The area had hitherto had knowledge of an oil spill of smaller
quantity; 500 barrels in September 1979 with death of crabs, fish and shrimp.
Eight months afterwards
the incidence of the spill, there was high mortality in embryonic shrimp and
reduced reproduction as a result of oil in the lake sediments (Gabriel, 2004;
Etuonovbe, 2009). Approximately 24, 000 barrels of oil spilled and spread over
fresh-water swamp forest into the mangrove swampbrakish water from the Ogada-Brass pipeline near Etiama in Nembe
in February 1995. In April 29, 2002 oil spill from a pipeline burst at
Royal/Dutch Shells Yorla oilfield in Ogoni-land. The oil gushed for days and
covered several meters into the air saturating neighboring vegetation and farm
land before the pipeline was restored (Aigbedion, et al., 2007). There was also the Goi Trans Niger pipeline oil
spill in 2004, among many others (Nenibarini, 2004).
Before oil
exploration, agriculture was the traditional main livelihood of the people and
has become part of their culture and livelihood. The rich alluvial soil of the
Delta coupled with copious web of fish and salt water bodies provided the necessary
incentives for the inhabitants who are mainly farmers and fishers (United Nations
Development Programme, 2006). The environment is, therefore, very important for
the Niger Delta people, where 60% of the population depend on the natural
ecosystem for their livelihood. Regardless of the conditions that tend to limit
the socio-economic opportunities of a large number of the population, the
people, out of necessity, look for means to ensure that their survival needs
are met.
The overhead cost of exploiting crude oil have been and is still
very high. Huge oil spills and pollution of drinking water, fishing grounds and
farmlands are experienced by agricultural and fishing communities. Large volume
of flares of burning gas from the oil extraction processes illuminate the atmosphere
day and night and contaminate the air. Oil exploration and exploitation brought
snowballing activity from the oil companies, demanding more space in an already
congested zone, and resulting in a more deteriorating environment and in diminishing
crop yields and fish catches. In spite of the oil and water pollution, the
Ogoni people continue to farm in order to produce food for the people. Women
are the main farmers in the land, as majority of the men have taken up casual
or permanent work in the oil multinationals and subsidiaries (Etuonovbe, 2009).
The 1948 Universal Declaration on Human Rights issued by the United
Nations, explained the importance of the planetary ecosystem to all world’s
inhabitants. An area that shows potential for similar global agreement is the
question of the proper treatment of natural environment. In 1987, the United
Nations-sponsored document called Brundtland Report emphasized the need for
Sustainable Development that is “meeting the needs of present generations
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Sustainable
development is a mid-point that seeks to stimulate appropriate development in
order to alleviate poverty, while still preserving the ecological health of the
landscape. The United Nations 2005 World Summit Document refers to the
“independent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as
economic development, social development, and environmental protection. This is
not always observed by some multi-national oil companies (United Nations
Environmental Programme, 2011).
Due to the
protests of the environmentalists against the environmental degradation of the
region, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP, 2011) instituted a
massive investigation into the pollution of the land. The report revealed a
high scale environmental degradation. UNEP recommended to the government, oil
and gas industry and communities to start up a comprehensive clean-up of
Ogoni-land and restore the already polluted environment as well as put a stop
to all form of contermination in the region. In June 2016, the Federal
Government of Nigeria launched the remediation project in the area, including
the use of dispersants, natural attenuation and solidifiers. In view of this,
it has become necessary to study the agricultural activities of the women
farmers, identify their problems and make recommendations.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Ogoni-land
is both an agricultural and fishing society. Agriculture in Ogoni-land is
highly dependent on rain as irrigation is seldom practised. The changes in the
rainfall pattern have greatly affected vegetation and agriculture. There is
almost complete absence of primary forests. Uncontrolled logging, agricultural
activities, acid rain, oil exploration and exploitation, urbanization and
mining activities have contributed to the loss of vegetation. Since majority of
the people living in the area are farmers, the environmental and social
consequences of climate change are putting livelihoods at serious risks.
The presence of crude oil in large commercial quantity and the vast
agricultural potentials in Niger-Delta region would have made it a potential
economic power (Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, 2006). However, the
agrarian communities which constitute over 50% of the inhabitants have been
most disadvantaged in terms of prospect for agricultural growth, transformation
and development. This has greatly affected agricultural production which
hitherto was the people’s occupation, business, tradition and way of life prior
to the discovery of oil in the region (Ojanuga et al., 2003).
Women
have borne the greater consequences of oil spillage; and the social disruption
and disarticulation arising from the associated economic crisis (Etuonovbe,
2009). In
the Niger Delta, women are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of the oil
economy (Uchegbu, 2002). First, they are more sedentary and constitute the
greater proportion of subsistence farmers, who also face the hardship of going
a long distance to fetch drinkable water. Available data on gas and oil
pollution in the oil producing areas show that gas pollution can cause serious
health problems such as cancer, asthma, blood disorder, respiratory illness,
reduced life expectancy and deformities in children, with the higher risk among
pregnant women (Uchegbu, 2002).
Analyzing
the genesis of modern day brutality against women in the Niger Delta area,
Uchegbu (2002) pointed to the beginning of the exploration and exploitation of
oil in the area. The exploitation of oil resources in the Niger Delta has
resulted in economic and environmental conflicts, with the female folks bearing
the brunt of the situation ((Luka, 2011). The direct impact is that it has led
to a situation within the region where the already impoverished women must
import food from other parts of the country. Oil
pollution has negatively impacted on the right to food of the Ogoni people (Ani
et al., 2015).
A number of
reasons have been given for oil spills, including oil well blow-out, due to
corrosion of pipelines and vandalism which leads to underground leakages. This
threatens the environment in the form of soil pollution and destruction of
vegetation (Atakpo and Ayolabi, 2009; Etukudoh, et al., 2012). In 1980, a significant pipeline blowout spilled
some 200,000 barrels of crude oil into the Atlantic Ocean and destroyed over 840
acres of Niger Delta mangrove (Imobighe, 2011). Thus, while food production was
generally increasing around the world during much of the 20th century, it was decreasing in the Niger Delta (Mc
Neil, 2000).
Upon a request from the Federal Government of Nigeria,
UNEP undertook an independent study to determine the extent of the
environmental impacts arising from oil industry operations in Ogoni-land.
Perhaps, the greatest indictment of the oil companies operating in the Niger
Delta with respect to the devastating impact of oil exploration on the
environment is the UNEP (2011) report on Ogoni-land which covers thematic
issues of contaminated land, ground water, surface water and sediments,
vegetation, air pollution and public health.
A United
Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP) report focused on the way forward for
restoring the livelihoods and well-being of future Ogoni generation and
recommended a commencement in the clean-up of the area. A Transition Phase was
recommended to maintain momentum and begin detailed planning in the intervening
period between the release of UNEP’s environmental assessment and the
commencement of a clean-up operation guided by an Ogoni-land Environmental
Restoration Authority.
Since the
remediation activities was launched in 2016, no official reports known to the
researcher has been documented on the effect of clean-up and remediation action
on the women farmer’s involvement in agricultural production activities. It is
not known to the researcher whether the women farmers who abandoned
agricultural production activities as a result of the effect of oil spillage in
Ogoni-land have returned to their farms owing the remediation activities going
on in the area.
The extent
to which this remediation has affected agricultural activities is not yet
ascertained. In view of this assertion, the study has made recommendations that will help the government to take adequate steps for
improved agricultural production in the Ogoni-land.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following
research questions guided the study:
i.
What
are the socio-economic characteristics of women farmers?
ii.
What
types of farming activities do the women farmers participate in within the
remediated environment?
iii.
What
are the factors influencing participation of the respondents in farming operations
in the remediated lands?
iv.
How
do the respondents perceive the clean-up and remediation activities in the
study area?
v.
What is the level of
access to farm inputs by the women farmers?; and
vi.
What
is the extent of extension services available to women farmers in the study
area?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of
the study is to assess women’s participation in agricultural production
activities in the remediated Ogoni-land of Rivers State, Nigeria
The specific objectives
were to:
i.
describe
the socio-economic characteristics of the women farmers;
ii.
identify the types of farming activities the
women farmers participate in within the remediated environment;
iii.
identify
the factors influencing participation of the respondents in farming operations
in the remediated lands;
iv.
ascertain
the women farmers’ perception of clean-up and remediation activities in the
study area;
v.
assess the level of
access to farm inputs by the women farmers; and
vi.
ascertain
the extent of extension service delivery available to women farmers in the
study area.
1.5 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
The following hypotheses
for the study were tested;
H01:
There
is no significant relationship between respondents’ level of access to farm
inputs and participation in farming activities in the study area.
H02:
There is no significant relationship between selected socio-economic
characteristics of the respondents and their participation in farming
activities in the study area.
H03: There is no significant difference in the
respondents rating of factors influencing respondents’ participation in farming
operations across the four Local Government Areas of Ogoni-land.
H04:
There is no significant difference in the respondents’ perception of the
clean-up and remediation activities across the four Local Government Areas of
Ogoni-land.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study
is of significance in various respects. It will acquaint women farmers in
oil-producing communities and oil producing companies with the dangers of oil
pollution and the need to prevent crude oil spills and ensure proper clean-up when
it occurs. It will educate Ogoni women farmers in the oil producing communities
on the available farming systems that can be used until remediated environment
is certified good for cultivation. Given the present price economy,
stakeholders will come to understand that the efforts of the subsistence women
farmers in Ogoni-land need to be augmented because oil spillage has directly
affected the level of farm inputs and farming systems.
This study
is, also, particularly significant because it will document the experience of
the Ogoni rural dwellers, particularly the women, in agricultural production.
It will also identify the agricultural activities that can thrive in the
polluted Ogoni-land environments and the extent of women involvement in the
various agricultural activities prevalent in the area. In addition, the study will
ascertain the nature and extent of support given to Eleme, Gokhana, Khan and
Tai women farmers the government, NGOs and community leadership, as well as the
various socio-cultural and environmental factors that constrain women in
agriculture.
The knowledge
to be gained from the findings of this research effort is expected to translate
to increase in capacity of farmers, particularly women, to adapt to the
negative effects of oil production, reduce vulnerability, increase farm output,
and subsequently increase income generated from farm activities. By
implication, this study will emphasize the need for proper clean-up and
restoration of the oil spilled environment to its natural state.
The outcomes
of this research are expected to be of immense benefits to farmers on oil-
polluted environmental area, particularly those in the Niger Delta area of
Nigeria. The findings will also help the community leaders to understand the
importance of women participation in the agricultural process and provide
necessary support in order to enhance food security in the area.
Lastly, the
study is very significant because it is believed that the findings would be
useful for policies on Niger Delta development and, also, on issues concerning
women in oil-producing areas in general. It will, also, contribute to the body
of literature on agriculture production in the Niger Delta and women
involvement in rural development. It is, also, expected to spur more research
in this regard.
1.7
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Four Local Government Areas
(Khana, Tai, Gokhana and Eleme) were selected for the study because they are
most affected crude oil-spilled host communities (Remedied lands).The study
ascertained clean-up and restoration measures taken in the oil spilled
environment of Ogoni-land.
This study, also, focused on Ogoni women farmers involved in crop
production activities in the crude oil-polluted remediated areas of Khana, Tai,
Gokhana, and Eleme Local Governments Areas and the support available to Ogoni women farmers,
community support, as well as socio-economic and environmental factors that
undermine the effectiveness of women involvement in agriculture in the area.
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Participation: The action of getting involved in something. For
example "participation in crop
production activities" (Wikipedia, retrieved on 2017).
Soil remediation: Soil remediation, also
known as soil washing, is a term that refers to various processes designed to
remove contaminants such as hydrocarbons (petroleum and fuel residues), heavy
metals, pesticides, cyanides, volatiles, creosote, and semi-volatiles from
soil. Soil remediation is needed to clean and maintain high quality standards
of soil, water and air that can consequently benefit commercial cultivation.
Soil fauna: Soil fauna is an important
reservoir of biodiversity which plays an essential role in several soil ecosystem functions. Furthermore,
it is often used to provide soil
quality indicators.
Agricultural
production: The is the cultivation of the soil
for crop production, raising of livestock, fish farming, poultry for food.
Petroleum: Petroleum is a general term for oil and natural gas. Oil and gas
are important fossil fuels formed from the decomposition and pressurization of
algae, plankton and other organisms.
Crude
oil: Crude
oil is a naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of hydrocarbon deposits and other
organic materials. Crude oil can be refined to produce usable products such as
gasoline, diesel and various forms of petrochemicals. It is a non-renewable or limited resource, also known as a fossil
fuel, which means that it cannot be replaced naturally at the rate we consume
it.
Hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbon is an organic
compound
consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from
which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional
groups,
called hydrocarbyls. Aromatic
hydrocarbons
(arenes), alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are
different types of hydrocarbons.
Petroleum
exploration: This is
the search by petroleum
geologists and geophysicists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the earth's
surface, such as oil and natural gas.
Petroleum
exploitation: is the process by
which usable petroleum is
drawn out from beneath the earth's surface.
Barrel
of crude oil: A
standard oil barrel
holds 42 gallons or approximately 159 litres of crude oil. Using the industry standard "barrel of
oil equivalent" (BOE), a barrel of crude oil is
said to be equal to 6,000 cubic feet of natural gas with an energy equivalent
of 1,700 kilowatt hours.
Crude
oil spill: Crude oil spill is
the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially
marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is
usually applied to marine oil spills,
where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters,
but spills may also occur on land.
Soil pollution/contamination: Soil pollution occurs when humans introduce harmful objects,
chemicals or substances, directly or indirectly into the soil in a way that causes harm to other living
things or destroys soil or water ecosystems,
while soil contamination occurs when human-made chemicals, such as hydrocarbons and heavy
metals, find their way into the earth, altering the natural soil.
Environmental
degradation: Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion
of resources
such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat
destruction;
the extinction of wildlife as well as pollution. It is defined as any
change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or
undesirable.
1.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Some limitations were
encountered. A study of this nature needs to cover the entire Rivers State, but
due to time factor and limited resources, it was restricted to only 4 Local
Government Areas in Ogoni-land, hoping that this will be a representative of
entire whole. Because of the multifarious nature of the occupation of the
women, it was not easy to reach all group members for their responses. Taking
advantage of women’s monthly meeting days to serve the questionnaire helped
matters as some were seen at their regular monthly meetings. Some other
limitations include:
The attitude
of the respondents was another limitation experienced especially the lukewarm
attitude of women to answering research questions, particularly when it touched
their dispositions. The research, therefore, was confronted with the problem of
some respondents not co-operating fully in providing answers to the questions,
and some seeing the exercise as an unnecessary distraction. A few of them had problem of recall, that is,
were not able to remember their farming activities in the past, as demanded
from them by the study.
Finally, paucity of
literature on the subject of this research imposed limitation on the study.
Accessing essential literature like books, journals, documents and other
relevant sources for secondary data collection was a daunting task. On the
whole, therefore, there is both hope and confidence because the researcher took
steps to eliminate, or at least minimize, the potentially negative consequences
of the problems enumerated above.
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