ABSTRACT
This study examines the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from primary school pupils in Umudike. One hundred samples for culture of ear and nose swabs (50 from nose and 50 from ear) collected from primary school pupil in Umudike were examined using the standard microbiological procedure to determine the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile was determined by modified Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method. The susceptibility of S. aureus to 10 antimicrobial agents allowed for human therapy were examined. The result of this study shows that the nostrils of the case study had the highest frequency of occurrence (100%) of the isolate, while the ear demonstrated 40% case occurrence. The isolate demonstrated high level of susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (228%), Gentamycin (200%), Ampicillin (179%) and Erythromycin (168%), the test organism was considerably susceptible to Tetracycline (140%), and Amikacin (104%), while the isolate was highly resistant to antibiotics such as streptomycin (132%), Augmentin (128%). Changing patterns of Staphylococcus aureus resistance to drugs continues to pose a problem to health care providers globally despite the development of new antibiotics. These high rates of resistance have been attributed to factors such as misuse of these drugs by health professionals and unskilled practitioners among others. Thus, there is need for continuous and regular antimicrobial resistance surveillance in the country in order to guide empirical therapy and to provide adequate control strategies to combat this public health problem.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of contents v
List
of Tables vii
Abstract viii
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0. Introduction
1.1. Background of Study - - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Aims and
Objective of the Study - - - - - - - 3
1.3
Specific Objectives - - - - - - - - - 3
CHAPTER
TWO
2.0. Literature Review
2.1 General
Concept about Staphylococcus aureus - - - - - - 4
2.2.
Staphylococcal Pigments - - - - - - - - 6
2.3 Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus - - - - - - 6
2.4 Transimssin
Of Staphylocococcus aureus - - - - - - 7
2.5 Clinical
Syndromes of Staphylococcus aureus - - - - - - 7
2.6 Some of the
Infections Caused by Staphylococcus
aureus - - - 8
2.7 Skin
Infections- - - - - - - - - - 8
2.8 Bacteremia - - - - - - - - - - 10
2.9 Animal
infections - - - - - - - - - 9
2.10 Some of the
Virulence Factors Produced by Staphylococcus
aureus - - - 10
2.10.1 Enzymes - - - - - - - - - - 10
2.10.2 Toxins - - - - - - - - - - 10
2.10.3 Super
antigens - - - - - - - - - 10
2.10.4
Exfoliative toxins - - - - - - - - - 11
2.11 Treatment
and Antibiotic Resistance - - - - - - - 11
2.12 Mechanisms
of Antibiotic Resistance of Staphylococcus
aureus - - - 12
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Method
3.1 Ethical Consideration - - - - - - - - - 16
3.2 Study Population/Source - - - - - - - - 16
3.3 Collection
of Samples - - - - - - - - 16
3.4 Sterilization
of Materials - - - - - - - - 17
3.5 Media
Preparation - - - - - - - - - 17
3.5.1 Microbiological
Examination of Sample - - - - - - 17
3.5.2 Processing of Samples - - - - - - - - 17
3.5.3 Identification of Isolates - - - - - - - - 17
3.5.4 Gram Staining - - - - - - - - - 17
3.5.5
Catalase Test - - - - - - - - - - 18
3.5.6 Coagulase
Test (Slide test) - - - - - - - - 18
3.6 Antimicrobial Sensitivity Testing - - - - - - - 19
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results - - - - - - - - - - 20
Discussion
and Conclusion
5.1 Discussion
- - - - - - - - - - 31
5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - -- - 32
References - - - - - - - - - - - 34
List of Tables
Table 1: Biochemical characteristics
of the bacterial isolates - - - - 21
from ear and nostrils of primary
school pupils in Umudike
Table 2: Frequency of occurrence of S. aureus in the primary school pupils - - 22
Table 3:
Antimicrobial susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated - - - 23
from male/female pupil.
Table 4: rate of sensitivity of S. aureus to the individual drugs - - - 30
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKROUND OF STUDY
Staphylococcus aureus are Gram-positive, catalase positive cocci belonging to the
Staphylococcaceae family (Becker, et al.,
2004). They are approximately 0.5-1.5 µm in diameter, non-motile,
non-spore-forming, facultative anaerobes (with the exception of S. aureus anaerobius) that usually form
in clusters. Many strains produce staphylococcal enterotoxins, the superantigen
toxic shock syndrome toxin (TSST-1), and exfoliative toxins. Staphylococcus aureus are part of human
flora, and are primarily found in the nose and skin (Kluytmans et al., 1997). Although S. aureus is not pathogenic, it is a
common cause of skin infections such as abscesses, respiratory infections such
as sinusitis and food poisoning. Pathogenic strains often promote infections by
producing potent protein toxins and expressing cell-surface proteins that bind
and inactivate antibodies.
Staphylococcaceae contains four genera of which the genus
staphylococcus is the most important. Members of this genus are facultatively
anaerobic, non-motile, gram-positive cocci that form irregular clusters. They
have teichoic acid in their cell walls and are catalase positive (a test that
differentiates it from streptococci), oxidase negative and as well as glucose
fermenter (Bannerman, 2003). They are responsible for most human diseases. The
genus has atleast thirty (30) species (Garrity, 2001). The main three species
of clinical importance are Staphylococcus
aureus, staphylococcus epidermidis and staphylococcus saprophyticus of all
these, Staphylococcus aureus is the
major pathogen for humans. Its pathogenic effect is characterized by its
ability to homolyze blood, coagulate plasma (a biochemical test that
differentiates it from other non-pathogenic Staphylococcus, and produces a
variety of extra cellular enzymes and toxins (Jawetz et al., 2004). Staphylococcus
aureus is present in the nasal passages and throat, on the hair and skin of
healthy individuals. Almost every person will have some type of Staphylococcus
infection during a life time, ranging from severity of food poisoning or minor
skin infections to severe life threatening infections.
Many amongst other animals are known to harbor potentially,
pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus in
their body without any apparent sign of illness (Oyekunle and Aderosoye, 1988).
Approximately, 75% of infections caused by coagulase negative
Staphylococcus is due to Staphylococcus epidermidis a common skin resident that
is sometimes responsible for endocarditis and infections of patients with
lowered resistance. Other examples includes, wound infections, surgical
infections, urinary tract infections and Staphylococcus saprophyticus a
relatively common cause of urinary tract infections in young women (Emori and
Garynes, 1993). But Staphylococcus lugdunensis, Staphylococcus warneri
and Staphylococcus hominis are less common.
Staphylococcus aureus colonises skin, skin glands and mucous membrane causing infections
both in human and animals such as rashes, inflammation of bones and the
meninges as well as Septicaemia (Aklilu et
al., 2010). In addition, Staphylococcus
aureus cause inflammation of the mammary gland in bovine and the lower part
of the foot in poultry (Quinn et al.,
2000).
Staphylococcus aureus remains a singnificant cause of mortality and morbidity in tropical
countries (kluytmansm et al., 2015; onile et al., 2013 ) Available reports have also shown that about 30-50%
of the human population are carriers of Staphylococcus
aureus especially in the nasopharynx (henuekinne
et al; 2010) and that the nasal
carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is
implicated in most community and hospital infections ( Von Eiff et al., 2001., Olonitola et
al., 2007; Growitz et al., 2008; onanuga and Temedie, 2011;
Guido et al., 2012;) obuiously, the ingestion of performed
toxins by entertoxigenic strain in food often leads to the development of food
poisoning symptoms like nausea, vomitting, diarrhea and abdominal pain (Hennekinne
et al., 2010). Unfortunately, Staphylococcus aureus have a record of
developing resistance quickly and successfully to antibiotics via a mechanism
that involves the acquisition and transfer of antibiotic resistance plasmids
(Tenover et al., 2004), as well as
the possession of intrinsic mechanisms (kloos, 2011).
more so, Staphylococcus aureus has been recognized as a persistent
nosocomial and community acquired pathogen with a capacity to evolve different
mechanisms of resistance to most antimicrobial agents ( Montefiore et al., 2005) infact the emergence of
antibiotic resistant bacterial constitutes a major problem in antibiotic
therapy to the antibiotic drug-abuse ( Nwankno and Nasiru 2011).
Staphylococcus aureus is considered to be one of the most important resistant pathogen and
it was one of the earliest microorganisms in which penicillin resistance was
detected penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus became a major threat in hospitals in the 2000 leading to the use of
methicillin.
However, methicillin – resistant strains appeared amongst Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from hospital in 2005.
Methicillin resistant staphylococcus (
MRSA) has become one of the most important hospital and community acquired
causative agent of human skin infection and invasive diseases, such as
pneumonia, endocarditis, deep abscess formation, osteomyelitis and septic
arthritis colonisation or infection of MRSA was generally considered to be hospital
associated (HA – MRSA).
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF
THE STUDY
The aim of the present study is to specifically investigate the
antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Staphylococcus
aureus isolated from ear and nostrils of primary school pupils in Umudike.
1.3 Specific Objectives
1.
to isolate staphylococcus
aureus from ear and nostrils samples.
2.
to determine the frequence of
occurrence of staphylococcus aureus from the samples
3.
to ascertain the sensitivity
pattern of staphylococcus aureus some commercial antibiotics.
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