ABSTRACT
The use of herbal medicines is an old tradition globally and in Nigeria, but the efficacies of these preparations are not adequately confirmed. The antimicrobial, phytochemical and antioxidant efficacy of three commercial herbal preparations sold in Umuahia was assessed, to ascertain their antimicrobial efficacy and use as cheap alternative treatment for various ailments. Terminator herbal (sample A), Goko cleanser (sample B) and Beta cleanser(sample C) were obtained from hawkers in Umuahia, and were tested against two selected Gram positive, two Gram negative bacteria and a fungus using the agar diffusion technique. Susceptibility was measured by inhibition zones for different concentrations of the preparations against the selected organisms. All the test organisms, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Bacillus spp. and Candida albicans used, were suspectiple to the drugs. Salmonella typhi and Staphlococcus aureus were most susceptible to the drugs with their MIC at 40% for all the drugs. Candida albicans had the least susceptibility with MIC at 80% for A and B and 60% for for C. All the drugs had bacteriocidal effect on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella spp. except for Bacllus spp. which only C had a bacteriocidal effect on at 100%, only C also had fungicidal effect on Candida albicans at 100%. Phytochemical constituents identified in both herbal suspensions confirmed presence of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, oxalates and phytosterols. The flavonoid and saponin concentration in C was highest than the amount in A and B. The antioxidant analysis showed the presence of DPPH inhibition with A, B and C having values of 66.4, 69.5 and 71.6 at 100µg/ml which means that the drugs had scavenging ability. More studies should be carried out to ascertain the usefulness of these herbal products as alternative treatment for clinical diarrheal cases and wound or skin lesions.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables
viii
Abstract ix
Chapter One
1
1.0
Introduction
1
1.1
Aims And Objectives
3
Chapter Two
5
2.0
Literature Review
5
2.1
Background Of Study 5
2.2
Phytochemicals
6
2.3.
Classes Of Major Phytochemicals, Food Sources And Nutritional Benefits 7
2.3.1
Alkaloids
8
2.3.2
Glycosides
9
2.3.3
Flavonoids
10
2.3.4
Phenolics
11
2.3.5
Saponins
11
2.3.6
Tannins 12
2.3.7
Terpenes 13
2.3.8
Anthraquinones
14
2.3.9
Essential Oils
14
2.3.10
Steroids
16
2.3.11
Anthocyanins
17
2.3.12 Carotenoids
17
2.3.13
Ascorbic Acid
19
2.4
Mechanism Of Action Of Phytochemicals
20
2.5
Antioxidants 22
2.6
Antimicrobial Properties Of Herbs And Herbal Extracts
23
2.7
Pathogens Associated With Human Infections
25
2.7.1
Salmonella
25
2.7.2
Staphylococcus Aureus
25
2.7.3
Escherichia Coli
26
2.7.4 Bacillus 26
2.7.5
Candida Albicans
27
Chapter
Three
29
3.0
Materials And Method
29
3.1
Materials
29
3.2
Methods
29
3.2.1
Sterilization Of Materials
29
3.2.2
Sample Identification
29
3.2.3
Media Preparartion
30
3.3
Bacteriological Analysis
30
3.3.1
Characterization And Identification Of The Microorganisms 30
3.3.2
Gram Staining
30
3.4
Biochemical Tests
31
3.4.1 Catalase Test
31
3.4.2 Coagulase Test
32
3.4.3 Indole Test
32
3.4.4 Methyl Red Test
32
3.4.5 Voges Proskauer Test
33
3.4.6 Citrate Utilization Test
33
3.4.7 Oxidase Test 34
3.4.8 Nitrate Reduction Test
34
3.5 Identification And Characterization Of
The Fungal Isolates
34
3.6
Phytochemical Analysis Of The Three Herbal Drugs
35
3.6.1
Determination Of Tannins
35
3.6.2
Determination Of Saponin
35
3.6.3Determination
Of Flavonoids
35
3.6.4
Determination Of Alkaloids
36
3.6.5
Determination Of Oxalates
36
3.6.6
Determination Of Cyanide Glycosides
36
3.6.7
Determination Of Phytosterols
36
3.7
Antioxidant Analysis Of The Three Herbal Drugs
37
3.7.1
Determination Of Free Scavenging Activity Of Dpph Radical 37
3.8
Methodology For Antimicrobial Analysis Using Disc Diffusion Method 38
3.8.1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)
40
3.8.2 Minimum Bacterial Concentration (MBC)
40
3.8.3
Statistical Analysis
40
Chapter Four 41
4.0 Results
41
Chapter Five
50
5.0 Discusssion, Conclussion And
Recommendations 50
5.1 Discussion
50
5.2
Conclusions
53
5.3
Recommendations 53
References
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
1
Mechanism of actions of phytochemicals
21
2
Concentration Combination Of The Three Herbal Drugs
39
3
Morphological And Biochemical Characteristics Of The Bacterial Isolates 43
4
Zones Of Inhibition
44
5
MIC Result For The Three Samples On The Three Samples 45
6
MBC Result For The Three samples On The Three Samples 46
7
MFC Result For The Three Samples On The Fungus
47
8
Result For PhytoChemicals
48
9 DPPH free
radical scavenging abilities of the herbal drugs 49
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The
use of herbal drugs has always been part of human culture as some plants
possess important therapeutic properties, which can be used to cure human and
other animal diseases.(Rios, et al.,2005)
reported that the idea that certain plants had healing potentials, indeed that
they contain what would be characterized as antimicrobial principles was well
accepted long before mankind discovered the existence of microbes. The healing
property of these medicinal plants is usually linked with the presence of
secondary metabolites and these differ from one plant to another. It been
reported that a substantial percentage of prescriptions contained one or more
of the natural products of plant origin as the therapeutic agent.
The
use of plants, plant extracts or chemicals derived from plants to treat
diseases is therapeutic modalities which have stood the test of time (Anmannil,
et al. 2005). More than 75 pure
compounds derived from higher plants are used in herbal drugs but most of those
applied in modern medicine are now produced synthetically. In recent studies,
extract of various parts of medicinal plants were found to have broad spectrum
antimicrobial activities against pathogenic organisms (Sudddhakar, et al. 2006).
Herbal
medicines include finished labeled products containing herbal materials as the active ingredient, their traditional
use and effectiveness have been verified by pharmacological and clinical evaluations, and are generally
used either as complimentary or alternative medicine in health care (Parthic, et al. 2011). Herbal medicine remains an
essential component of the primary health care in many rural African and Asian
communities and also an important component of complementary and alternative
medicine all over the world (Okigbo, et
al. 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as much as
80% of the populations of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal
medicines for some aspect of their primary health care (Zhou, et al. 2007). In many parts of the world
where herbal medicines are widely used certain factors have militated against
its inclusion into the main stream health care system. Among the major
drawbacks include poor dosage form design and standardization of the products
(Calixto, et al., 2000). In recent
times there has been an upsurge in the use of herbal medicines, which has
become more mainstream due largely to improvement in regulation, analytical and
quality control tools as well as advances in clinical research showing great value
in general healthcare and management of certain diseases in which the
conventional medicines has not done too well (Chauhan, et al. 2013). Though, herbal medicines are frequently considered to
be safer than conventional medicines because of their better tolerance.
However, there are also reports of side effects and adverse reactions that have
been related to herbal medicines (Shiel, et
al. 2014). While some of these side
effects and adverse drug reactions are due to the intrinsic bioactive secondary
metabolites present in the herbal materials, many are due to the poor qualities
of the products which may be attributed to such factors as contamination (with
chemicals, pesticides, micro organisms and heavy metals), adulteration with
pure drug compounds and poor quality control measures. An acceptable herbal
product must be safe, stable and presented in a suitable dosage form and
package (Firenzuoli, et al. 2005).
Another factor
which has attracted the public to these herbal drugs is the phenomenal surge in
the number of commercial advertisement, promotion, and trado-medical fairs on
herb-based products globally and particularly in Nigeria. These phytomedicinal
products are often promoted to the public as being “natural” and completely
“safe”. Majority of the lay public believe that because medicines are herbal
(natural) or traditional they are safe and cannot cause harm. However, it is known
that traditional medicines and practices can cause harmful, adverse reactions
if the product or therapy is of poor quality, or it is taken inappropriately or
in conjunction with other medicines (WHO, 2008). Furthermore, adulteration,
inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant, and drug
interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life-threatening
or lethal [Ehrlich, 2011]. With the rising incidence of liver and kidney
disorders, cancers, and unexplained deaths, it is probable that adverse
reactions due to herbal products are under-reported. It is well known that
patients are reluctant to tell their doctors that they are taking herbal
products [Barnes, et al. 1998] and
communication between patients and traditional healthcare providers is
generally poor leading to high risk in the practice. As a result, it has become
exceedingly important to create the conditions for the correct and proper use
of traditional medicines.
These facts and a concern for public safety
informed the present study, conceived to check the safety and efficacy of some
samples of commercially sold herbal products promoted in Umuahia, Abia State,
Nigeria in relation to their labeled claims. The safety evaluation of these
herbal products is important which includes their antimicrobial, phytochemical
and antioxidant screening. These evaluations are to act as a check to the
popular belief that herbal drugs can cure all types of ailment and infections.
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The
broad objectives of this study is evaluate the potentials of three locally
drugs as related to the claims of its efficacy and also to screen it for the
health of the general public that consumers these drugs.
The
specific objectives of the study are to:
a. Evaluate
the phytochemical composition of Terminator cleanser, Goko cleaner, Beta
cleanser and herbal cleanser which would be represented with the code names sample
A, sample B and sample C respectively.
b. Evaluate
the antimicrobial properties of the three herbal drugs against two Gram
positive bacteria, two Gram negative bacteria and a fungus.
c. Evaluate
antioxidant properties of the drugs.
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