ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTS OF EMILIA SONCHIFOLIA AND CHROMOLAENAODORATA ON STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA AND CANDIDA ALBICANS

Abstract

In vitro antibacterial activities of crude extract of Chromoleriaodorata and Emilia sonchifiliawere investigated against some humanpathogensincluding Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans using the agar well diffusion and broth dilution techniques. The ethanolic crude extract of both plants exhibited significant inhibitory action against all the isolates tested at an initial concentration of 200mg/ml except for Candida albicans. The zones of inhibition exhibited by the extract against the tested organisms ranged between 12.0 and 16.5mm for the ethanol extract of Chromoleriaodorata and 11.5 to 14.0mm for theEmilia sonchifilia extract, while the zones of inhibition exhibited by Gentamicin used as standard antibiotic control ranged between 19 and 21mm. There was a corresponding decrease in the zone of inhibition of the growth of the pathogens as the concentration of the extracts decreased. The minimum inhibitory concentrations exerted by the ethanol extract of Chromoleriaodorata against the bacterial isolates ranged between 12.5mg/ml and 25mg/ml while that of Emilia sonchifiliawas also between 12.5mg/ml and 25mg/ml. The percentage yields of phytochemical content of the leaves of the Chromolenaodorata and Emilia sonchifilia plants were as follows: alkaloids (1.63%, 2.09%), flavonoids (0.79%, 1.36%), saponins (6.05%, 0.91%), and tannins(0.74%, 0.82%) respectively. The result shows that the leaves of these plants have appreciable amount of these phytochemicals, hence their medicinal value. Chromolenaodoratahad the highest amount of saponin(6.05%) when compared with those of Emilia sonchifilia (0.91%). The significant antibacterial activities exhibited by the ethanol extracts of the plants confirmed the therapeutic potentials of these plants in treatment of various infections in herbal medicine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page                                                                                                                   

Certification                                                                                                                           i

Dedication                                                                                                                              ii

Acknowledgement                                                                                                                  iii

List of tables                                                                                                                           iv

Abstract                                                                                                                                  v

Chapter One             

Introduction

Chapter Two

2.0       Literature Review                                                                                                       5

2.1       Historical Background on Medicinal Plant                                                                5

2.2       Brief Overview of the Test Organisms                                                                       6

2.2.1    Staphylococcus aureus                                                                                               6

2.2.2    Psedomonasaeruginosa                                                                                              7

2.2.3    Candida albicans                                                                                                        7

2.3       Antimicrobial Resistance                                                                                           8

2.4       Origin and Medicinal use of Emilia sonchifolia                                                        9

2.5       Origin and medicinal uses of Chromolaenaodorata                                                   11

2.6       Phytotherapy                                                                                                               13

2.7       Phytochemicals                                                                                                          13

2.7.1    Tannins                                                                                                                       14

2.7.2    Alkaloids                                                                                                                    15

2.7.3    Saponins                                                                                                                     16

2.7.4    Flavonoids                                                                                                                  16

2.7.5    Phenolic Compounds                                                                                                  17

Chapter Three

3.0       Materials and Methods                                                                                               18

3.1       Materials                                                                                                                     18

3.2       Methods                                                                                                                      18

3.2.1    Preparation of plant extracts                                                                                       18

3.2.2    Collection of the Pathogens                                                                                        19

3.2.3    Preparation of Antibiotics Disc                                                                                  19

3.3       Preparation of Stock Solution of Extract                                                                   19

3.4       Media Preparation                                                                                                      19

3.5       Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test                                                                               20

3.6       Determination of MIC and MBC                                                                               20

3.7       Quantitative Phytochemical Analysis                                                                        21

3.7.1    Determination of saponins                                                                                          21

3.7.2    Determination of Tannins                                                                                           22

3.7.3    Determination of Alkaloids                                                                                        22

3.7.4    Determination of Flavonoids                                                                                      23

3.7.5    Determination of Total Terpenoids                                                                            24

3.8       Statistical Analysis                                                                                                     24

Chapter Four

4.0       Results                                                                                                                        25

Chapter Five

5.0       Discusiionand Conclusion

5.1       Discussion                                                                                                                   30

5.2       Conclusion                                                                                                                  31

5.3       Recommendation                                                                                                       32

References                                                                                                                             33

CHAPTER ONE

1.1       Introduction

Humans have relied on nature for their basic needs for the production of food, clothing, shelter, transportation, fertilizers, flavors, and all medicines (Cragg and Newman, 2005). Plants have formed the basis of sophisticated traditional medicine systems that have been on existence for thousands of years and continue to provide mankind with new remedies. Although some of the therapeutic properties attribute to plant have proven to be erroneous, medicinal plant therapy is based on the empirical finding of hundred and probably thousands of years of use (Grub-Fakim, 2006). The interest in nature as a source of potential chemotherapeutic agents continues. Natural products and their derivatives represent more than 50% of all drugs in clinical use in the world today (Cragg and Newman, 2005). Medicinal plant presently in demand and their acceptance is increasingly progressively. Undoubtedly, plants play an important role by providing essential services in the ecosystem. Without plants, humans and other living organisms cannot live in a way living should be. Anyway, herbals especially medicinal herbs have constantly acted as an overall indicator of ecosystem health. Medicinal plants have undoubtedly been considered by humans since the early humans recognized and exploited the plants around them for use as fuel, clothing, shelter and food, they become aware of their properties more or less. Medicinal plant has been transformed into one of the oldest sciences in countries such as China, Greece, Egypt, and India. In ancient Persia, plants were commonly used as a drug, disinfectant and aromatic agent. In fact, the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases dates backs to the history of human life, that is since human beings have sought a tool in their environment to recover from a disease, the use of plants were their only choice of treatment. More than a tenth of the thousands of species are used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. However, the distribution of medicinal plant across the world is not uniform and medicinal herbs are mainly collected from wild life production. Indeed, the demand for wild life sources has increased by 8%- 15% per year in Europe, North America, and Asia in recent decades. The active compounds in most parts have direct or indirect therapeutic effects and are used as medicinal agents. In the body of these plants, certain materials are produced and stored that are referred to as active compounds which have physiology effects on living organisms. Humans are mainly dependent on raw materials in order to meet medical needs to maintain health and cure diseases. Medicinal plants are used for the treatment because they have certain properties including synergistic actions. The constituents of plants may interact with each other and this interaction can be beneficial for both or adverse to either of them or eliminate the harmful effects of both. Plant-derived compounds can dramatically improve hard to treat illness, such as cancer. Plants component are also characterized by their ability to prevent the development of certain disease. The toxicity and adverse effects of conventional and allopathic medicines have also been important factors in the sudden increase in the number of herbal drug manufacturers as well as a reduction in the use of chemical drug (Mamta et al., 2013).  Since inception, plants have been recognized to contain natural products which serve as food as well as medicine in the event of human infection. The presence of phytochemicals determines the antimicrobial properties of any plants. They are also responsible for the plant flavours, odors, colours, and majorly their system of defense or resistance against some pathogens. There have been quest for search of an alternative antimicrobial agents for natural plant origin due to increasing microbial drug resistance. When new drug is introduced into clinical practice, microorganisms particularly bacteria develop resistance to such drug within a short period of its introduction. In other words, new chemotherapeutic agents have always been accompanied by corresponding increase in drug resistance (Srinivasara et al., 2009). Today a substantial number of drugs are developed from plants which are active against a number of diseases (Grub- Fakim, 2006). In recent years number of studies has been reported dealing with antimicrobial screening of extracts of medicinal plants (Thenmozhi et al., 2013). Antimicrobial properties of various parts of plants like leaves, seeds, and fruits have been well documented for some of the medicine plants for the past decades (Okigbo et al., 2009). A variety of compounds are accumulated in plants accounting for their constitutive antimicrobial activities. The problem of drug resistance has prompted researchers to turn their attention to folk medicine as alternative to conventional chemotherapeutic agents following several reports on the medicinal opportunities derived from higher plants (Srinivasara et al., 2009).

Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans are opportunistic pathogens. Opportunistic pathogens are those microbes that are not harmful to humans but when altered or in excess become harmful, they can also be termed as an infectious agent. Humans are the natural host for many bacterial species that colonized the skin as human flora. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi. There diseases can be spread directly or indirectly from one person to another or from animal to humans. Human infection especially those involving the skin and mucosal surfaces may lead to serious complications (Naido et al., 2011). Infectious diseases are world’s leading cause of premature deaths, killing about 50,000 people every day. It is estimated that about 70% of bacterial that cause infections in hospitals are resistance to at least one of the drugs most commonly used for treatment. In addition, in developing countries, synergistic drugs are not only expensive and inadequate for the treatment of diseases but also often with adulterations and side effects on host which include hypersensitivity, depletion of beneficial gut and mucosal microorganisms, immunosuppression and allergic reactions. This has created immense clinical problem of infectious diseases (Ghani et al., 2009). Therefore, the present study has been undertaken to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of the leaf extracts of Emilia sonchifolia and Chromolaena odorata on Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans.

1.2       Aims of the Study

The main aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of ethanol and aqueous extracts of leaves of Emilia sonchifolia and Chromolaena odorata against some human pathogens.

The specific objectives of this study included:

      i.         To determine the antimicrobial activities of the ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the leaf of Emilia sonchifolia and Chromolaena odorata on Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans.

     ii.         To determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the ethanolic plant extracts against these pathogens.

   iii.         To evaluate the Phytochemical composition of Emilia sonchifolia and Chromolaena odorata

Buyers has the right to create dispute within seven (7) days of purchase for 100% refund request when you experience issue with the file received. 

Dispute can only be created when you receive a corrupt file, a wrong file or irregularities in the table of contents and content of the file you received. 

ProjectShelve.com shall either provide the appropriate file within 48hrs or send refund excluding your bank transaction charges. Term and Conditions are applied.

Buyers are expected to confirm that the material you are paying for is available on our website ProjectShelve.com and you have selected the right material, you have also gone through the preliminary pages and it interests you before payment. DO NOT MAKE BANK PAYMENT IF YOUR TOPIC IS NOT ON THE WEBSITE.

In case of payment for a material not available on ProjectShelve.com, the management of ProjectShelve.com has the right to keep your money until you send a topic that is available on our website within 48 hours.

You cannot change topic after receiving material of the topic you ordered and paid for.