ABSTRACT
The lack of awareness and disregard for caution and information by the producers, consumers and customers on the importance of the characteristic content, pathogenic or parasitic organisms and other influences which may arise from environmental and human impacts associated with drinking water create uncertainties in the reliability of the quality of drinking water distributed for consumption. This study investigated the factors responsible for deterioration. The physico-chemical assessments of all samples before storage were observed to conform to the recommended limits of World Health Organization, 2017. However, the microbiological total coliform count assessment of the same samples before storage showed the absence of coliform while samples PW1, PW2, PW5, PW7 & PW10) presented with high total coliform count of (70-780CFU/ml). Further investigation revealed that there was a correlation between the deterioration of water samples with time and the purification processes used in water production such as reverse osmosis, ultra violet light sterilization and carbon filtration. High concentrations of some metals such as Fe and Pb were observed in samples PW (1, 2, 3, 7, 8, & 10). The change in colour from 5Hu to 10Hu in samples (PW2, PW3, PW8 & PW10) during the shelf period, corresponded with their objectionable taste observed and also the increased turbidity values of PW3 with 7.75NTU, 10.31NTU and 14.05NTU monthly during the period of shelf, and also PW8 with 11.74NTU in the third month which were above the permissible limits of 5NTU by the W.H.O. The fluctuations in the values of some parameters such as dissolved oxygen levels, total hardness, and conductivity and pH levels are dependent on the chemical, physical, and biochemical activities occurring in the packaged water such of as the respiratory and metabolic activities of the Total Coliforms on nutrients, temperature, and the degree of light penetration. The deterioration in the values of the parameters evidently showed that Packaged drinking water may at certain stages of treatment, processing and storage become not conducive for human consumption even before its expiry date and so there is need for consistent water quality and treatment control checks of drinking water from time to time and this may still be the best approach of having a good packaged water quality.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Declaration i Certification
ii Acknowledgements iii
Table of contents iv List
of tables viii
List
of figures
ix Abstract x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 Background of study 1
1.2 Types of packaged water 3
1.3 Statement of the
problem 7
1.4 Aim and objectives 8
1.5
Scope of research 8
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 Packaged
water: a local drinking water Initiative 10
2.2 Packaged
pure water in nigeria
10
2.3
Early days of pure packaged drinking
water in nigeria
11
2.4.0 Water treatment
processes
14
2.4.1 Disinfection
15
2.4.2 Sand filtration
17 2.4.3 Carbon filtration 17
2.4.4. Ultra violet
sterilization
18 2.4.5. Reverse osmosis
19
2.4.6. Ozonation
20 2.4.7. Bottling
and packaging
21 2.5 Pure water quality
22 2.5a
Microbial quality
22
2.5b Physical quality
24
2.5c Chemical quality
24
2.6. Some
physicochemical parameters which are indices of water quality 25
2.6.1 Physical properties 26
2.6.2 Chemical properties
28 2.7 Some indicators of
drinking water quality 30
2.7.1
Taste and odour
30 2.7.2 Nutrients
contaminants
31
2.7.3 Trace/heavy metal 32
2.7.4 Microbial indicators (total
coliforms)and microbial growth
33
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIAL AND METHODS
3.1 Materials 37
3.1a Consumable 37
3.1b Equipment 37
3.2 Methods 37
3.2.1 Geo-reference of study area 38
3.3 Sample collection 41
3.4 Procedure for physico-chemical
analysis 41
3.4.1 Temperature determination 42
3.4.2 Determination of
pH
42
3.4.3 Determination of
electrical conductivity 42
3.4.4 Determination of turbidity 43
3.4.5 Determination of total dissolved solids 43
3.4.6 Determination of dissolved
oxygen 44
3.4.7 Determination of
colour 44
3.4.8 Taste
determination .45
3.4.9 Determination of total hardness 45
3.4.10 Test for total coliforms count 46
3.4.11 Determination of
nitrates 47
3.4.12
Determination for heavy metals 49
3.4.13 Tests for calcium and magnesium 50
CHAPTER 4:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 52
4.1 pH Results of the monthly mean
values
52
4.2 Results of the monthly mean values of
total dissolved solids 54
4.3 Results of the monthly mean values of
temperature (o C) 56 4.4 Results of the monthly mean values of
total hardness
57
4.5 Results of the monthly mean values of
electrical conductivity 59
4.6
Results of the monthly mean values of turbidity 61
4.7 Results of the monthly mean
values of colour (Hazen Units)
63
4.8
Results of the monthly mean values of dissolved oxygen 64 4.9 Results of the monthly mean values of
total coliforms count 65 4.10
Results of the mean range variation of taste at two weeks interval 67
4.11
Results of the analysis of metals and nitrate
68
4.11a Results of nitrates
68
4.11b Results of calcium and
magnesium
69
4.11c Results of heavy
metals
70
4.12 Pearson’s product-moment correlation 72
CHAPTER
5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 75
5.1 Conclusions
75
5.2 Recommendations 76
REFERENCES
77
APPENDICES
84-91
LIST
OF TABLES
2.5 Some diseases and their causative
organism
23
3.0 Identifications and treatment processes
of water samples 40
4.1 Results of the monthly mean
values in pH (mg/L)
52
4.2 Results of the monthly mean
values in total dissolved solids (mg/L) 54
4.3 Results of the monthly mean
values of temperature (oC) 56
4.4 Results of the monthly mean
values of total hardness (mg/L) 57
4.5 Results of the monthly mean
values of electrical conductivity (𝜇S/cm) 59
4.6 Results of the monthly mean
values of turbidity (mg/L) 61
4.7 Results of the monthly mean
values of colour (Hazen Units) 63
4.8 Results of the monthly mean
values of dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 64
4.9 Results of the monthly mean
values of total coliforms (CFU units 65
4.10
Results of the mean range variation of the test for taste in
two (2 weeks intervals) 67
4.12 Results
of the analysis of metals and nitrates 68
4.13 Pearson’s product-moment correlation 72
LIST
OF FIGURES
2.1 Hypothetical bacterial curve
35
3.0 Geo-reference of the study area
38
4.1 Graphic representation of the nitrate
levels
69
4.2
Graphic representation of the nitrate levels
70
Appendices
2.1 Roadside vendors hawking chilled water
in sachets
84 2.2 Sand and carbon filter,at Iza water
treatment plant
85 2.3 Carbon filters sourced at Iza water treatment plant 86 2.4 Ultra sterilization system at Iza water treatment plant 87 2.5
Reverse osmosis plant at Iza
water treatment plant 88 2.6 Ozone plant at Iza water treatment
plant
89 2.7 Packaging process in Iza water treatment
plant
90
2.8
Permissible water quality criteria for drinking water table 91
CHAPTER 1
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Water plays a significant role in maintaining
man’s well-being. The purpose of having clean drinking water is evident as a
man’s fundamental right. About 780 million persons inadequately access clean
and safe drinking water leaving about 2.5 billion people with no proper
environmental balance (Citifmoline, 2011).
As result of this degradation, over 6 to 8 million people die each year due to
water related diseases such as typhoid, cholera and many of such diseases are
often generated from water related disasters and outbreaks such as flood and
water pollution; which are mostly influenced by the activities of man (UN-Waters,
2013). Therefore, the target of controlling
and achieving an optimum quality of water is of top-priority policy agenda in
many countries across the world today (World Health Organization (WHO), 2017).
Even until
recent times, most of the people living in the major cities of Nigeria do not still
have access to good source of water, especially, drinking water which was known
to be distributed by the Water Board under the Ministry of Water Resources. Due
to these un-availability or inadequacies of potable drinking water, many have
resorted to more costly alternatives of buying water from water vendors; and
then this lead to sachet or bottled drinking water which has become a major
source of drinking water till date (Omalu et
al., 2010).
Packaged pure water is a purified, treated and sealed water to ensure that the water
is safe, protected, clean, and potable for the customers or consumers’
consumption. The pure water is generally packaged for consumption in vessels
such as cans, plastics, sachets, glasses, pouches, laminated boxes, and as ice
prepared for customers use or for consumption. Sachet water gradually has become the most
widely consumed packaged water for both the rich and the poor in Nigeria. An
aided statistics carried out in Jos, showed 93% of sachet water is consumed
compared to others (Miner et al., 2016). Sachet water happens to win the choice of consumers amongst
other packaged pure water products because it
is cheaper. It is also considered to be acceptable even for affluence, purity,
hygiene and, most importantly, for the safety. This acceptance is probably one
of the dynamic reasons why sachet water is mostly consumed. Unfortunately, the
problems of its purity and health concerns have begun to manifest (Oladipo et al., 2009).
Packaged water is a consumable, and
as such it is subject to laws requiring expiration dates on all consumables
(Food Safety Authority of Ireland, 2017)
Packaged
water may not be completely sterilized and that depends on the treatment
methods and water production facilities available. As a result, physical,
microbiological and chemical water standards are not attained even after such
treatment. The need, therefore, arises for regular investigation on water
quality standards of packaged water. The need for regular quality check is essential
to save energy and reduce waste.
Generally,
the characteristic properties of water are significantly influenced by physical
activities (such as filtration,
dispersion/dilution, and gas movement), biochemical activities (such as microbial respiration, cell
synthesis and decay,) and geochemical activities (such as acid-base reactions,
adsorption-desorption precipitation solution, oxidation-reduction, and
complexation).
1.2
TYPES OF PACKAGED WATER
The various types of
packaged water available in the market may be distinguished through their
sources and modes of treatment. And these are packaged in plastic or glass containers
that may or may not be carbonated. Some common types of packaged water for commercial
purposes include:
a)
Artesian water
This is water that originates from a
confined aquifer that has been tapped and in which the water level stands at
some height above the aquifer.
b)
Fluoridated water
This type of packaged drinking water
contains fluoride guided and guarded by the precepts of Federal Drug Agency
c)
Groundwater
This type of water flows from underground
source formations whose flow pressure is equal to or greater than the
atmospheric pressure.
d)
Purified water
Purified water that has been treated by
reverse osmosis, deionization, distillation, or any other suitable procedures;
de-mineralized water can also be called“purified water”.
e)
Sparkling water
Sparkling water contains same quantity of
carbon (iv) oxide that it had at emergency from the source. The carbon (iv)
oxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.
f)
Spring water
Spring water naturally comes from an
underground formation from which the water flows to the earth surface.
g)
Well water
Well water is taken from a well, a dug
hole etc; this hole may be bored, drilled, or otherwise constructed in the
ground.
h)
Pure water
Water can be said to be pure when the
impurities are removed or purified by carbon filtration, micro-porous filtration
and ultraviolent oxidation. And this is a category of water available for sale
and distribution to customers and consumers.
The
lack of awareness and disregard for caution and information by the producers,
consumers and customers on the need to know the pathogenic or parasitic
organisms and other influences which may arise from environmental and human
impacts associated with drinking water, creates uncertainties in our
reliability on the total quality of drinking water distributed for consumption.
Some Sachet waters have been reported to contain bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp, Bacillus sp, Klebsiella
sp, oocysts of Cryptosporidia sp and Streptococcus sp, amongst other
factors which may be facilitated from improper storage conditions and
environmental contaminants which pose serious threat and concerns to the health
of the consumers (Omalu et al., 2011).
Contaminants pose a threat in the
water and definitely affect the water quality which subsequently affects the health
of man. The potential sources of water contamination are human impacts from
agricultural activities, industrial activities, and water treatment plants
during production. Other naturally occurring sources of contamination are geological
conditions. These contaminants are further categorized as microorganisms,
organics, disinfectants, radionuclides, and inorganics, (Nollet, 2000). The inorganic chemicals
constitute a greater portion as contaminants in drinking water as compared to
organic chemicals (Azrina, 2011).
Waterborne diseases have been well controlled in developed nation,
apart from the emergence of unforeseen disasters. But this concern remains
eminent in most developing nations like Nigeria. (Horward et al, 2003). The most dangerous source of pollution for drinking
water is from faecal contaminant which includes pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, Vibrio cholera and Shigella species
which are shed in faeces. Due to improperly treated sewage water system, these
moves into the ground water and other channeled sources of drinking water.
The minimum infectious dose, that represents the smallest count of
the ingested pathogens that is liable to cause diseases for an average healthy
adult varies for various microorganisms. Doses range from
several hundred organisms for Shigella
flexneri to cause dysentery, just little count of organisms for Salmonella typhi just able to cause
typhoid, a hundred million count cells of Vibrio
cholera causing Cholera, to as several million count cells of Salmonella serotype able to cause Gastroenteritis (World Health
Organization, 2017). The minimum
infectious dose also varies with age, nutritional and health status (this
includes ability of the immune system to attack or defend the body of the
infected individual). For those individuals weakened in strength, like the
sick, the elderly, just a very small dose would infect them compared to the
active adult persons. (World Health Organization, 2011).
Quality
of drinking water is also evaluated on the basis of its chemical components.
These can be achieved by assessing parameters like its pH, dissolved oxygen,
heavy metals, total hardness, total alkalinity, and organic constituents
(Denloye, 2004).
Water
quality and its assurance for consumption are determined by its colour, its
taste, odour, and concentration of organic and inorganic matters (Dissmeyer, 2000; Nollet, 2000). A number of
scientific procedures have been developed and carried out to assess these water
contaminants, some of these procedures
include the analysis of different parameters like total suspended solids (TSS),
turbidity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), conductivity, heavy metals and total organic carbon (TOC) (Dissmeyer, 2000).
If the tested values obtained are of higher concentrations in the water
samples more than the safe, permissible limits recommended by recognized health
and drugs regulatory bodies in world (World Health Organization (WHO), 2017). These parameters may affect or
change the quality of water and may even deteriorate with time during storage. Therefore,
there is need for continued investigation of drinking water quality regularly
by researchers, scientists, and governmental health and customers’ regulatory
bodies throughout the world and especially in developing nations (IARC, 1991).
1.3
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It has been known that natural and human activities
affect our environment due to industrialization and development and these
create adverse conditions that may affect human life. These activities expose
this same water to environmental challenges, and this challenges are in various
dimensions, as the potable water is being distributed in order to reach the
target of consumers, thus the problem of this research lies on the fact that
the treatment, exposure, storage conditions and the packaging itself may affect
the quality of water being distributed. And therefore, at certain stages of its
storage, even before its stipulated expiry date, become unfit for human
consumption.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.4.1
AIM:
The aim of this work is to
access the impact of water
treatment and storage on the deterioration of packaged water before shelf-life expiration.
1.4.2 Objectives
The objectives of this work include:
1)
To assess the physical, chemical and
microbiological quality of packaged drinking water brands available in the area.
2)
To observe and study the variance in the
changes and deterioration of the sachet and bottled water after production even
before its expiry date.
3)
To investigate when the produced packaged
drinking water is most suitable for consumption even before its expiry date.
4)
To investigate the common sources and reasons
for possible deterioration.
5)
To make consumers aware of packaged water reliability before shelf-life expiration
1.5 SCOPE OF RESEARCH
Sachet and bottled water was collected from
water treatment companies who employ most of the treatments methods used in the
production of packaged pure water such as Chlorination, Filtration, Ultraviolet
light, Reverse Osmosis and Ozonation. Twelve
(12) water samples were investigated in all which included Ten (10) sachets of water
samples were collected from Samaru, Shika, Basawa, Sabo areas of Zaria and two
(2) bottled water samples collected from Iza Bottled Water Company and Ahmadu
Bello University service drinking water outlet.
The physico-chemical and
microbiological tests for each of
the twelve (12) water samples were
carried out on the day of collection before being stored in an open facility
(green house) to investigate the impact of
storage system on water quality. The physico-chemical parameters such
as pH, turbidity, total hardness, electrical conductivity, taste, dissolved
oxygen and the microbiological total coliform count of the water samples
evaluated were used to make assessment. These evaluations were repeated on the
twelve water samples at monthly intervals, for three consecutive months.
The results obtained were
used in the evaluation of the effect of water treatment methods on water
quality over time and also the impact of storage techniques or weather
conditions on the quality of water samples over a period of time.
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