ABSTRACT
Uvaria chamae and Eleusin indica exhibited antimicrobial activity against both the Gram positive and Gram negative test-organisms at 500mg/ml and 250mg/ml for methanolic extract except for P. aeruginosa ATCC27854 and E. faecalis ATCC7080 which had no inhibition. Aqueous and methanol extracts of Eleusin indica and Uvaria chamae had strong inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923, Escherichia coli ATCC25922 and Salmonella typhi at 500mg/ml. partial to no inhibition was observed in lower concentrations of 250mg/ml and 125mg/ml. The extracts had MIC values ranging from 250mg/ml-62.5mg/ml for Eleusine indica and Uvaria chamae and MBC values of 250mg/ml-125mg/ml. Strong inhibition was observed at MIC values of 125mg/ml except Escherichia coli ATCC25922 but at 62.5mg/ml. Only Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923 and Escherichia coli ATCC25922 showed inhibition. Antimicrobial activity was also not observed from 62.5mg/ml, 31.2mg/ml, 15.6mg/ml and 7.81mg/ml for methanolic extracts of Uvaria chamae while antimicrobial activity was not observed from 62.5mg/ml - 7.81mg/ml for aqueous extracts of Uvaria chamae. Antimicrobial resistance was observed at 250mg/ml for aqueous and methanolic extracts of Uvaria chamae. The extract had no inhibition at 250mg/ml for methanolic and aqueous extracts of Eleusin indica while partial to no inhibition was observed at 125mg/ml and 62.5mg/ml for methanolic extract of Eleusin indica. Partial to no inhibition was also observed at 125mg/ml for aqueous extract of Eleusin indica. Antimicrobial activity was not observed for Aqueous extract of Eleusin indica at 62.5mg/ml, 31.2mg/ml, 15.6mg/ml and 7.81mg/ml, while no antimicrobial activity was recorded for methanolic extract of Eleusin indica from 31.2mg/ml, 15.6mg/ml and 7.81mg/ml. The phytochemical screening showed that the leaf extracts of Eleusin indica are rich in alkaloid (1.8%), saponin (1.71%) and terpenoid (1.67%) and Uvaria chamae are rich in alkaloid (1.8%), saponin (2.12%) and terpenoid (1.73%), while flavonoid (0.42%) and (0.8%) appears to be low in quantity for Eleusin indica and Uvaria chamae respectively.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification page i
Title page ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables vi
Abstract
vii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1
Aims
and objectives 4
Chapter two
2.0 Literature review 6
2.1 Antimicrobial properties of some
medicinal plants 6
2.2 Antimicrobial activity mechanisms of
natural products 10
2.3 Trends
in medicinal plant use 14
2.3.1 Global
herbal market 15
2.4 Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal
plants 15
2.5 Major
groups of antimicrobial secondary metabolites 16
CHAPTER
THREE
3.0 Materials
and methods 19
3.1 Collection
of plant materials 19
3.2 Preparation
of plant extract 19
3.2.1 Methanol
extract preparation 19
3.3 Reactivation
of stock culture of test organism/media used 19
3.3.1 Media
preparation 20
3.3.2 Preparation
of stock solution of extract 20
3.4 Collection
of test organisms 20
3.5 Antimicrobial
testing in the agar well diffusion method 20
3.6 Determination
of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 21
3.7 Determination
of minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the plant leaf
extracts
on test isolates 22
3.8 Phytochemical
screening 22
CHAPTER
FOUR
4.0 Results 24
CHAPTER
FIVE
5.0 Discussion 32
5.1 Recommendation 34
5.2 Conclusion 34
References
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title
Page
1
MMean diameter zone of inhibition (mm)
produced by methanol and
aqueous extract of Uvaria chamae
25
2 Mean diameter zone of inhibition (mm)
produced by methanol and
aqueous extract of
Eleusin indica
26
3
MIC and MBC values of methanol extracts of Uvaria chamae
27
4
MIC and MBC values of aqueous extracts of Uvaria chamae 28
5
MIC and MBC values of methanol extracts of Eleusin indica 29
6
MIC and MBC values of aqueous extracts of Eleusin indica 30
7
Quantitative phytochemical composition of Uvaria chamae and Eleusin
indica 31
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nature always stands as a golden mark to exemplify the outstanding
phenomena of symbiosis. Natural products from plant, animal and minerals have
been the basis of the treatment of human disease. It is estimated that about 80%
of people in developing countries still rely on traditional medicine based
largely on species of plants for their primary health care. Herbal medicines
are currently in demand and their popularity is increasing day by day (Pei et al., 2015).
Existence of life on earth will be incomplete without a look at
the role of plants, because plants have been an integral part of the human
society since the start of civilization (Togola et al., 2005). The main
uses of plants include sources of food (cereals, vegetables, fruits, beverages,
drinks, spices, condiments, seasoning, etc.); edibles (for colouring) or as
dye-colours; ethno-medicine and ethno-veterinary medicine; pesticides and
insecticides to protect the crops; wood for making implements, utensils, tools,
musical instruments, boats, oars and other household goods; cordage; commercial
plants; crude drugs, packaging material, wild fruits and vegetables and fuel
(Shah et al., 2016). Since the
beginning of civilization, people have used plants as medicine. Also, plants
continue to be a major source of medicines, as they have been throughout human
history. It has been said that between 35, 000 and 70, 000 species of plants
have been used at one time or another for medicinal purposes. Medicinal plants
thus play a vital role in the maintenance of human health throughout the world
and notably in the tropics. Interestingly, many of today's drugs have been
derived from plant sources (Orwa, 2002).
Medicinal Plants are used in treatment of diseases like bleeding,
boils, bronchitis, cold, cough, asthma, dysentery, ear complications, headache,
leucoderma, pneumonia, renal complications, piles, scorpion bite, snake bite
and skin diseases. Plants are also used for other health conditions notably
reproductive health conditions including infertility, abortion, delivery
complications, menstrual disorders, miscarriages, family planning and many
gynaecological disorders. Currently, there are about 121 prescription drugs
sold worldwide which are derived from several plant species of the rainforests,
in-fact, today's 20 best-selling drugs, which are worth about $6 billion a
year, are derived from tropical plants (Balunas, 2005). It is believed there
are still undiscovered species of plants in the rainforests, and it is
unimaginable the amount of undiscovered species in the rainforests that have
the possibility of doing even more than these discovered species have been
proven to do (Orwa, 2002).
Uvaria chamae is a Nigerian medicinal plant belonging to the family Annonaceae.
It is commonly called Ayikolo by the Igala people of Kogi state, Kaskaifi by
the Hausas, Oko oja by the Yorubas in Nigeria (Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2004) and
mmimi ohia by igbo people of South-Eastern Nigeria (Adetunji, 1999). It is a
climbing plant predominantly found in the tropical rain forest of West Africa
(Okwu and Iroabuchi, 2004). It is an evergreen plant that grows about 3.6 to
4.5 m high, cultivated and can also be found in the wild. The plant is extensively branched with
sweet, aromatic and alternate leaves (Okwu, 2007) commonly used to cure
diseases and heal injuries. U. chamae is a plant with both medicinal and
nutritional values.
The tree is used locally, being harvested from wild for its
edible fruit, medicinal and other uses. The root bark is sometimes sold in local
markets, mainly for medicinal use. The flowers are sweetly scented, with yellow
fruits when ripe and have a sweet pulp which is widely eaten.
Uvaria Chamae a plant with both medicinal and nutritional values and is commonly used to cure
diseases and heal injuries (Okwu, 2007). It has been reported that extracts of Uvaria
Chamae have mutagenic effects. The drug benzyl benzoate used in antifungal
preparations has a mutagenic compound, chamuvaritin, a benzyl dihydrochalcone
that was isolated from Uvaria Chamae (Okwu, 2007). The root bark is used
for respiratory catarrh and the root extract is used in phytomedicine for the
treatment of piles, menrrhegia, epiostaxis, haematuria and haemalysis. A root
infusion is used to cure abdominal pains (Okwu
and Iroabuchi, 2004). The juice from the roots, stems or leaves is
commonly applied to wounds and sores and the antifungal and antibacterial
inhibitory properties of the plant have been reported (Okwu, 2007). In folk
medicine, extracts of the roots, barks and leaves of Uvaria chamae are used to treat gastroenteritis, vomiting,
diarrhea, dysentery, wounds, sore throats, inflamed gums and a number of other
ailments (Ates and Erdogrul, 2003).
Eleusine indica, the Indian
goosegrass, (BSBI, 2007) yard-grass,
goosegrass, wiregrass, or crowfootgrass, is a specie of grass in the
family Poaceae. It is a small annual grass distributed throughout the warmer
areas of the world to about 50 degrees latitude. Goosegrass thrives in
compacted, poorly drained soils; consequently, it is commonly found in the
high-traffic areas of sports fields, golf courses, and residential and
commercial lawns and it is not often found in healthy, growing turf. Seeds of E. indica are edible and are someimes used as a famine food, but
yields are low (Lans, 2007). It is an important weed of cultivated crops,
lawns, and golf courses. It thrives in disturbed areas with compacted soils in
full sun (Gruyal et al, 2014). This low-growing grass is capable of
setting seed even when closely mown. Some populations have evolved resistance
to certain herbicides, including glyphosate. Eleusine indica performs C4 photosynthesis and therefore can grow
in hot climates and in the hotter months of the temperate zone (Gruyal et
al, 2014). Its seeds germinate later in spring than most other temperate
zone weeds, such as crabgrasses. Though usually considered an annual, it may
survive for more than a year in climates not subject to frost (Gunjar et,
al, 2012).
Eleusine indica can be used as
antidiarrhea (Lans, 2007), diuretic and antihelmintic (Gunjar et al, 2012),
and management of fertility issues (Gruyal et al, 2014). It has also
been shown to have antidiabetic and antimalarial activity as well antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory activity. It has been studied that chloroform and
methanol extracts of E. indica have
shown activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aerugenosa, Entrococcus faecalis and Bacillus
species (Okokon et al, 2010).
1.2
Aims and Objectives
1. To evaluate and
determine the antimicrobial activity of the leaf extracts of Uvaria chamae and Eleusin indica against some selected Bacteria.
2. To determine the
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration
(MBC) of the leaf extracts of Uvaria
chamae and Eleusin indica against
some selected Bacteria.
3. To screen the
plants of Uvaria chamae and Eleusin indica for phytochemical
screening.
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