ABSTRACT
This study investigated semantic memory cues and language experience approach on achievement, interest and self-efficacy in reading comprehension of pupils in Imo State. The study was guided by twelve research questions and twelve null hypotheses. The study adopted a non-equivalent pre-test, post-test control group quasi-experimental research design using 3x2 factorial matrix. A total sample of 174 subjects drawn using multi-sampling techniques from a population of 154,586 (79,509 males and 75,077 females) primary five pupils in public primary schools in 2018/2019 academic session in Imo State was used for the study. Three instruments namely: Test of comprehension (TOC) forms 1 & 11, Pupils’ reading comprehension interest rating scale (PRCIRS) and Pupils’ Self-efficacy Rating Scale (PSERS) were developed, validated and used for the study. The Internal consistency reliability coefficients were determined for the three instruments. The calculated reliability coefficient estimates for test of comprehension forms I and II were 0.91 and 0.89 respectively, while the estimates for the Pupils Reading Comprehension Interest Rating Scale and Pupils’ Self-Efficacy Rating Scale were 0.89 and 0.86 respectively. The instruments were administered on the pupils and were analyzed in line with the research questions and hypotheses. Descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions while Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance which revealed the following findings: Intervention using semantic memory cue teaching strategy significantly improved the achievement, interest and self-efficacy in reading comprehension of primary school pupils. Language experience approach teaching strategy significantly improved the achievement, interest and self-efficacy of primary school pupils. However, gender of the primary school pupils did not significantly influence the achievement, interest and self-efficacy of primary school pupils in reading comprehension when taught with semantic memory cue teaching strategy and language experience approaches. Among the educational implications of the study was that the achievement, interest and self-efficacy of primary school pupils depend on the use of semantic memory cues and language experience approaches. It was thus recommended that teachers should be taught how to help students acquire skills required in the use of semantic memory cues and language experience approaches.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page ii
Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgements vi
Table
of Contents vii
List
of Tables ix
Abstract xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the Study 1
1.2
Statement of the Problem 9
1.3
Purpose of the Study 10
1.4
Significance of the Study 11
1.5
Research Questions 14
1.6
Hypotheses 16
1.7
Scope of the Study 17
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 19
2.1 Conceptual Framework 19
2.1.1 Objectives
of teaching reading comprehension in
primary schools in Nigeria 19
2.1.2 Concept and nature of language experience
approach 27
2.1.3 Concept of reading comprehension 34
2.1.4 Concept of academic achievement 41
2.1.5 Concept of interest 48
2.1.6 Concept of self-efficacy 49
2.1.7 Concept of gender 56
2.1.8 Concept of gender 59
2.2 Theoretical Framework 61
2.2.1 The multi store theory of memory 61
2.2.2 Self-determination theory 62
2.2.3 Social cognitive theory 66
2.3 Review of Empirical Studies 69
2.4 Summary of Literature Review 80
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 82
3.1 Design of the Study 83
3.2 Area of the Study 84
3.3 Population of the Study 85
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique 85
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection 87
3.6 Validation of the Instrument 88
3.7 Method of Data Analysis 89
3.8 Control of Extraneous Variables 90
3.9 Method of Data Analysis 94
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 95
4.1 Results 95
4.2 Summary of Major Findings 120
4.3 Discussion of Findings 121
CHAPTER
5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary 129
5.2 Conclusion 132
5.3 Recommendations 132
5.4 Educational Implication of the Study 134
5.5 Limitation of
the Study 136
5.6 Suggestions
for Further Study 136 REFERENCES
APPENDICES
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.1:
Mean achievement scores of pupils in reading
comprehension exposed to semantic cues and
conventional teaching method 95
4.2: Analysis
of covariance for achievement mean
scores of pupils in reading
of comprehension
taught using the semantic memory cues and
conventional teaching method 96
4.3: Mean achievement
scores of pupils in reading
comprehension exposed to language experience
approach and conventional teaching method 97
4.4: Analysis
of covariance for achievement mean
scores of pupils in reading
of comprehension
taught using the language experience approach
and conventional
teaching method. 98
4.5:
The interest scores of pupils in reading comprehension
exposed semantic
cues and conventional teaching
method 99
4.6: Analysis of covariance for mean interest
scores
of pupils in reading of
comprehension taught
using the semantic memory cues and
conventional teaching method 100
4.7: Mean and standard deviation differences in the
mean interest scores of pupils in reading
comprehension exposed semantic cues and
conventional
teaching method 101
4.8: Analysis of covariance for mean interest
scores
of pupils in reading
of comprehension taught
using the language experience approach
and conventional
teaching method 102
4.9: The self-efficacy mean scores of pupils in
reading
comprehension exposed the semantic cues
and conventional teaching method 103
4.10: Analysis of covariance for mean self-efficacy
scores of pupils in reading of comprehension
taught using the sematic memory cue and
conventional teaching method 104
4.11: Mean and standard deviation differences in the
mean self-efficacy scores of pupils in
reading comprehension exposed semantic
cues and conventional teaching method 105
4.12: Analysis
of covariance for mean self-efficacy
scores of pupils in reading
of comprehension
taught using the language experience
approach and conventional teaching method 106
4.13: Pre-test
and posttest mean achievement score
and standard deviations scores of male and
female pupils in reading comprehension
taught using the semantic
approach cue 107
4.14: Analysis
of covariance for achievement mean
scores of male and female pupils in reading of
comprehension taught using the semantic
memory cues 108
4.15: Pre-test and posttest mean achievement
score
and
standard deviations scores of male and female
pupils
in reading comprehension taught using
the language experience approach 109
4.16: Analysis of covariance for mean achievement
scores of male and female pupils in reading
of
comprehension taught using the language
experience approach 110
4.17: Pre-test and posttest mean interest score
and
standard
deviations scores of male and female
pupils
in reading comprehension taught using
the semantic memory cues 111
4.18: Analysis of covariance for mean interest
scores
of male and female pupils in
reading comprehension
taught
using the semantic memory cues 112
4.19: Pre-test and posttest interest score and
standard
deviations
scores of male and female
pupils
in reading comprehension taught
using
the language experience approach 113
4.20: Analysis of covariance for mean interest
scores
of male and female pupils in
reading of comprehension
taught
using the language experience approach 114
4.21: Pre-test and posttest mean self-efficacy
scores of
male and
female pupils in reading comprehension
taught
using the semantic approach cue 115
4.22: Analysis of covariance for mean
self-efficacy
scores of male and female pupils in reading
of
comprehension taught using
the semantic memory cues 116
4.23: Pre-test and posttest self-efficacy scores
of
male and female pupils in reading comprehension
taught using the language experience
approach 117
4.24: Analysis of covariance for mean
self-efficacy
scores of male and female pupils in reading of
comprehension taught
using the language
experience approach 119
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
TO THE STUDY
Learners
may have problems of understanding what they read. Learners’ ability to
comprehend what they read depends on their acquisition of reading skills.
Reading skills, according to Colorado (2017), range from summarizing,
sequencing, inference, drawing conclusion, self-questioning, problem solving,
relating background knowledge, distinguishing between facts and opinions, and
finding main ideas. Reading for comprehension helps pupils to construct meaning
from texts, as well as to examine and extend the meaning of the text (Presley,
2016). Nnachi (2010) defines reading comprehension as the ability and skill to
understand a reading passage. Snow and Burns (2015) opined that reading
comprehension should be defined as a process of getting meaning from print,
using knowledge about the written alphabet and about the sound structure of
oral language for purpose of achieving understanding.
Reading
involves the process of encoding and processing information by relating
incoming information to the already stored information or ideas (Colorado, 2017).It
is an attempt at understanding a text that is read or the process of
constructing meaning from a text. Difficulty in comprehending deprives readers
the opportunity of understanding what the writer is trying to convey. It
hinders the reader’s ability to transfer knowledge, learn new skills or gain
pleasure from text or messages. Poor reading skill denies readers chance of
gathering information which helps them to function efficiently in the society
they belong (Michael, 2016).
The
problem of poor reading comprehension becomes more compounding when one
considers that most of Nigerian children are from rural settings that are not
rich in intellectual stimulation. Rural children in this context refer to those
from the rural community. Such children come to school having not been exposed
to the rudiments of reading skills and as such they show evidence of inability
to read a given texts with facility (Opara 2018). Ubahakwe (2018) also argued
that inability to read with understanding does not affect only the Nigerian
rural children. In urban areas the situation is the same. Succinctly, some
children in the urban setting show evidence of not been exposed to the
rudiments of reading comprehension skills and evidence of inability to read a
given text with facility. In line with this, Ubahakwe (2018), Ajayi (2017) and
Nwachukwu (2017) concluded that reading for comprehension is problematic enough
even for the urban Nigerian child because of the bilingual and multilingual
situations in the country. In this regard, Agulanna (1992) stated that
inability to read affects the child’s academic performance and capsizes his self-concept
such that he approaches the learning task with increased lack of confidence
especially as he grows up. In other words, success in school requires that
learners read for comprehension. Evidence abound of poor achievement in
subjects that require reading for understanding such as English language,
Mathematics, Primary Science, Social Studies among others (Nwachukwu, 2017). The
academic achievement of a child could be defined as the learning outcome of the
child. This includes the knowledge, skills and ideas acquired and trained
through the course of study within and outside the classroom situations
(Epunam, 2009).
In spite of the importance of primary
education in the survival of the whole educational system and national
development, the achievement of pupils in internal examinations and the
transition examination into junior secondary schools in Imo State in the past
four years (2014-2017) has been declining steadily. For instance, a close
analysis of the results of the transition examination into junior secondary
schools for the years 2014-2017 shows that only 56%, 53%, 48% and 38% of the
pupils respectively passed well enough to be given admission into junior
secondary schools (Ministry of Education, MOE, Imo State, 2014-2017). Many
others were pushed into the junior secondary schools because of the nine year
basic education programme in the country which provides for only one percent
failure in each grade. The observed poor achievement of pupils in the
transition examination was related to poor reading comprehension which was
suspected to be linked with ineffective teaching (Ogbu, 2018). Akinbola (2009) indicated
that ineffective teaching methods used by most teachers for instructional
delivery could decrease pupils’ interest in learning. Akinbola (2009) noted
that the continuous use of conventional teaching method is responsible for learners’
poor achievement. According to Oranu (2009), conventional teaching methods such
as lecture and demonstration are regarded as content driven and certainly not
learner centered.
Conventional
teaching methods are teacher-centered and predominantly used for instructional
delivery in Nigerian schools, including primary schools (Okon, 2009). Okon (2009)
maintained that conventional teaching methods, relative to modern instructional
techniques are not challenging enough to the academic needs of the learners.
Barnstein (2009) stated that modern instructional techniques are more effective
and interactive, especially for any child at primary school level. This
situation has continued to create concern in the minds of teachers, parents,
curriculum experts and evaluators especially because of the importance of
primary education in the survival of the whole educational system and national
development.
The
importance of primary education may have led the Federal Republic of Nigeria
(FRN, 2013) to explain in the National Policy on Education (NPE) that primary
education is referred to as the education given in an institution for children
aged six (6) to eleven (11) years plus. Primary school education is the
foundation upon which all other levels of education are built. A primary five
child is a pupil aged 10 years plus and is in the first level of education
where most Nigerian children come in contact with formal education. Primary
school education is the bed-rock for success of other levels of education (FRN,
2013). Primary education plays a crucial formative role in the survival of the
whole educational system.
A
number of conferences and workshops have been organized with a view to
addressing the problem of poor achievement of children in primary schools in
subjects that require reading for understanding such as English language,
Mathematics, Primary Science, Social Studies and so on. As a result, a number
of strategies have been recommended for teaching so that pupils can learn
better. These include: enquiry-discovery method (Ekpo, 2009); Use of
information and communication technology (ICT) in the classroom (Olorundare,
2009); Use of reciprocal peer tutoring (Uroko, 2010) and Use of elaborative
interrogation (Ezeahurukwe, 2010). All these recommended approaches look quite
interesting in their theoretical orientation but evidence shows that the
problems are still prevalent as could be seen from the Imo State Ministry of
Education’s (2014 -2017) transition examination results into junior secondary
schools. The poor achievement becomes more worrisome when one considers the
literature evidence that seems to suggest that the weaknesses of the candidates
were traced to inability to read, comprehend and answer the questions correctly
(Ekpo, 2009; Uroko, 2010; Ezeahurukwe, 2010). These made candidates to provide
answers that were wrong. The problem was more obvious in comprehension
exercises in English Language where they were required to read and draw
inferences since the answers were not given. The reports have it that pupils
lost a lot of marks as a result of lifting “seeming answers” from the passage,
and that many pupils were yet to come to grips with the skills of comprehension
(Ministry of Education, MOE, Imo State, 2014-2017).
Literature
reports emanating from Western Europe tend to suggest that semantic cues and
language experience approaches have the potential of helping pupils to
understand what they read (Eysenck & Keane, 2009).Semantic memory approach is
concerned with the meaning of words, pronunciation, how they are put together
to construct tenses and phrases. It is the organized knowledge about the world.
Semantic is a grammatical word referring to the rules governing the meaning of
words or sentences in a language (Nnachi, 2007). Semantic rules permit the
language users to convey the sublets of nuisances (Feldman, 2009). Accordingly,
one can differentiate the meanings of words and sentences in a grammar
according to sounds and usage. Eysenck and Keane (2009) expressed the view that
semantic memory is always organized to help the pronunciations and construction
of tenses and phrases.
Agulanna
(2018) is of the view that semantic memory approach contains the facts and
general information that one knows such as abstractions, concepts, rules and
how to use them in problem solving and learning procedures. She further stated
that many things taught in the school system are retained in the semantic
memory. Cues in this context are guides that will stimulate a child to recall
what he has stored in the semantic memory and it facilitates recall from the
semantic memory. They act like catalogues used in locating books in the
library. Furthermore, language experience approach is also a method or approach
that may be used to help the child acquire reading comprehension skills. It is
an approach that involves the child in the quest of acquiring reading
comprehension skills (Okpara 2018). The child is motivated to express his
experiences through writing a story in his own language. This may assist the
child to read his experience as directed by the instructor or as documented by
himself. According to Howlett (2009) language experience approach brings
together writing, reading, art and language. It helps the learners understand
that what he thinks and says can be written down. The child will enjoy reading
his thoughts that have been written down.
The
language experience approach is based on Social Cognitive Theory (Self-efficacy) by
Bandura (1977) which emphasized on imitation in language learning. Social
learning theory shows that it is plausible that young children learn language
by imitating the speech of their parents, siblings, peers and other significant
others (Goldfien, 2009). Although imitation may contribute to the acquisition
of language, there are individual differences in its nature and extent (Bloom
1973). One therefore wonders the extent the pupils’ interaction during the
semantic memory cues and language experience approach would support multi store
theory and social learning theory.
In
this respect, semantic memory cues and language experience approaches have some
research evidence in support of their potential effectiveness in some western
countries (Fisher, 2009; Allen, 2009; Oczkus, 2009; Esteve, 2009), little
studies seem to be available here in Nigeria especially in Imo State. It is
important that these approaches be tried out in Imo State to determine the
extent of their effectiveness in improving the reading comprehension
achievement of primary school pupils.
In
adopting semantic memory cues and language experience approaches as
instructional strategies, other observed factors that can influence the pupils’
participation in the tutor/tutee procedure such as interest, self-efficacy and
gender need to be addressed. Interest as viewed by Nekang (2009) is an
emotionally oriented behaviour trait, which determines pupils’ energy and
enthusiasm in tackling educational programmes or other activities. Okoye (2009)
looked at interest as a kind of feeling which one has for something which is
valuable and beneficial.
Interest
is a necessary ingredient before learning can take place; for a child is bound
to pay attention as a lesson goes on if such a child is interested in the
particular subject. Harbor-Peters
(2002) also defined interest as:
subjective feeling of intentness or
curiosity over something. The interest in a particular thing is a feeling
manifested in an activity. Interest is a tendency to become absorbed in an
experience and to continue in it. It is the zeal or willingness to participate
in an activity from which one derives some pleasure (p. 34).
However, studies
carried out in Nigeria have revealed high failure rate and relatively small
proportion of students’ interest in subjects that require reading for
comprehension (Ezugwu & Agwagah 2009). Students could be more comfortable
when they interact with peers than when they are threatened by the presence of
a teacher or an adult. Working alone with peers may generate interest among
students, therefore, it is important to determine the extent semantic memory cues and language experience
approaches can affect
students’ interest in reading for comprehension since it is learner centered.
Research
studies have indicated that self-efficacy is an important factor in school
achievement (Friedman, 2009). Self-efficacy is defined as people’s beliefs
about their capabilities to produce designated levels of achievement that
exercise influence over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 2007). Self-efficacy
can operationally be looked at as people’s beliefs in their capabilities to
exercise control over their own functioning and over events that affect their
lives. Beliefs in personal efficacy affect life choices, level of motivation,
quality of functioning, resilience to adversity and vulnerability to stress and
depression. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate
themselves and behave. Schunk and Zimmerman (2009) maintained that compared
with pupils who doubt their learning capabilities, those who have a sense of
efficacy for particular tasks participate more readily, work harder, persist
longer when they encounter difficulties, and achieve at a higher level. It is
therefore important to determine the extent semantic memory cues and language
experience approaches can enhance the self-efficacy beliefs and sustain the
interest of primary school pupils and success in school academic activities.
According to Bandura (2012), if pupils have experienced success in a domain,
they are likely to have higher self-efficacy in that domain.
Another
area that has been of interest to researchers is the issue of gender on reading
achievement of pupils. According to Ezeh (2013), gender refers to one’s
subjective feeling of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness irrespective of one’s sex. While
some research studies showed evidence of girls’ superiority over boys in
reading (Umoh, 2009; Coley 2009&Newkirt cited in Onuigbo, 2009), some
studies reported that boys achieved better (Okudo, 2013). Following these
inconsistencies, this work seeks to contribute in resolving this controversy on
gender as it affects reading achievement, interest and self-efficacy in reading
comprehension. These were the driving forces that motivated this study.
1.2 STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM
Reading
comprehension has been indicated to be very relevant in the life of any pupil. It
is important in academic achievement as it helps pupils to construct meaning
from texts as well as to examine and extend the meaning of the text. Yet the
prevailing problem in Imo State, Nigeria is that the achievement of pupils in
the transition into junior secondary school examinations has been declining
steadily. Teachers, parents, curriculum experts and evaluators are worried,
especially when the poor achievement has been blamed on poor reading
comprehension achievement. The situation becomes more worrisome when one considers
that the poor reading comprehension has been blamed on poor teaching methods. A
lot of strategies have been recommended to improve the situation but the problems
of poor academic achievement are still prevalent. It is believed that if the
reading comprehension achievement of pupils in the transition to junior
secondary schools remains like this, it may affect both the economic and
technological growth of Nigeria. Research reports emanating from Western
countries tend to suggest that semantic memory cues and language experience
approaches have the potential for improving the achievement, interest and
self-efficacy in reading comprehension of pupils. Yet, the effect of semantic
memory cues and language experience approach would have on the reading
comprehension achievement, interest and self-efficacy of Nigerian primary school pupils, who operate in
a different socio-cultural environment, is yet to be determined. The problem of
this study therefore put in a question form is: what would be the effect of semantic
memory cues and language experience approaches on the achievement, interest and
self-efficacy belief in reading comprehension of primary five school pupils?
What is the influence of gender on the achievement, interest and self-efficacy belief
in reading comprehension of primary five school pupils based on exposure to semantic
memory cues and language experience approaches?
1.3 PURPOSE
OF THE STUDY
The
purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of semantic memory cues
and language experience approach on achievement, interest and self-efficacy
belief in reading comprehension of primary school pupils in Imo State.
Specifically, the study sought to:
1)
Find out the effect of semantic memory cues instructional approach on
the mean reading comprehension achievement scores of pupils;
2)
determine the effect of language experience instructional approach on
the mean reading comprehension achievement scores of pupils;
3)
ascertain the effect of semantic memory cues instructional approach on mean
interest scores in reading comprehension of pupils;
4)
determine the effect of language experience instructional approach on mean
interest scores in reading comprehension of pupils;
5)
find out the effect of semantic memory cue instructional approach on mean
self-efficacy scores in reading comprehension of pupils;
6)
examine the effect of language experience instructional approach on mean
self-efficacy scores in reading
comprehension of pupils;
7)
determine the influence of gender in mean reading comprehension achievement
scores of pupils based on exposure to semantic memory cues instructional
approach;
8)
find out the influence of gender on mean reading comprehension
achievement scores of pupils based on exposure to language experience instructional
approach;
9)
find out the influence of gender on mean interest in reading
comprehension scores of pupils based on exposure to semantic memory cues
instructional approach;
10)
determine the influence of gender on mean interest scores in reading
comprehension of pupils based on exposure to language experience approach;
11)
find out the influence of gender on mean self-efficacy scores in reading
comprehension of pupils based on exposure to semantic memory cues instructional
approach;
12)
determine the influence of gender on mean self-efficacy scores in
reading comprehension of pupils based on exposure to language experience instructional
approach.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE STUDY
The
significance of the study derives both from the theoretical and empirical basis
of the findings of the study. This study has some theoretical significance for Atkinson
and Shiffrim’s (1968) multi store theory of memory which states that the short
term memory acts as a gateway between sensory memory and long term memory.
Multi memory theorist assumed that the main way in which information is
transferred to the long term memory is through rehearsal in the short term memory.
The finding of the study would also support Social Cognitive Theory (Self-efficacy) by
Bandura (1977) which emphasized on imitation in language learning.
Social learning theory shows that it is possible that young children learn
language by imitating the speech of their parents, teachers, siblings, peers, school
administrators, among others.
The
study is relevant to pupils, teachers, government, corporate bodies, guidance
counsellors, authors, curriculum planners and researchers when published. To
the pupils, the study could reveal whether the strategies employed in semantic
memory cues and language experience approaches can improve the reading
comprehension achievement of pupils. The pupils who receive instruction using semantic
memory cues and language experience approaches may become better learners.
These semantic memory cues and language experience approaches could help them
to integrate and construct meaning from the texts as well as examine and extend
the meaning of the texts, as they bring the already existing schema to bear on
what they read. The relationship between the pupils’ use of semantic memory
cues and language experience approaches and their improved achievement in
reading comprehension, would be motivated to learn. Their awareness of these
processes they use in learning would facilitate their transfer of these
strategies across various tasks and settings. They would realize that their
inability to read and comprehend large volume of materials is as a result of
ineffective learning strategies. This would encourage them to cultivate high
sense of self-efficacy in order to sustain their interest in challenging and
difficult life realities.
The teachers’
knowledge of these semantic memory cues and language experience approaches,
which pupils utilize for better comprehension, may help them to consider giving
pupils lessons on semantic memory cues and language experience approaches that
aid reading comprehension at the beginning of the session. This orientation
programme would provide pupils with an array of learning skills that they could
explore to become independent and confident learners.
School
Administrators may gain deeper insights into their role as instructional
leaders and supervisors of the teaching learning process by recommending the
use of these approaches in other subjects. The finding will benefit the school
administrator who will now plan or re-design the programme in such a way that,
pupils acquire reading comprehension skills which hitherto will enable them
acquire logical reasoning. It will be beneficial to both the teachers and
learners. The teacher will use the data in the classroom to improve the
methodology in teaching-reading comprehension skills. For instance, the Federal
and State Governments, Institutions of Higher Learning, Ministries of
Education, could use the findings of this study, and be motivated to organize
conferences, seminars and workshops for teachers on the semantic memory cues
and language experience approaches that could be useful for pupils. These
workshops and seminars could be designed to provide in-service training for
teachers on how to design and undertake semantic memory cues and language
experience approaches.
The
findings of this study may benefit the corporate bodies like United Nations
International Children’s Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Educational Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), National Education Research Development
Centre (NERDC) and reading Association of Nigeria who are interested in child
development and education. It could be possible for such bodies to embark on
seminars and workshops in the schools using the results of the study.
The
findings of this study will benefit guidance counsellors. It may provide in-depth
knowledge to guidance counsellors on how to counsel pupils with difficulty in
reading comprehension. The study may be of importance to textbook authors and
curriculum planners. The impact of these semantic memory cues and language
experience approaches on the reading comprehension achievement of pupils may be
so important that textbook writers may include sufficient information on the
strategies in the pupils’ texts. Any textbook with sufficient guide on the use
of these strategies would be popular among pupils and their teachers whose
tasks would have reduced.
Future researchers may benefit from this
endeavour in such a way that the result may be used as a guide in conducting
similar studies and development of methods to increase the use of semantic memory
cues and language experience approaches.
1.5 RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
The
following research questions were posed and answered to guide the study:
1.
What is the effect of semantic memory cues instructional approach on the
mean reading comprehension achievement scores of pupils?
2.
What is the effect of language experience instructional approach on the mean
reading of comprehension achievement scores of pupils?
3.
To what extent does semantic memory cue instructional approach affect the
mean interest scores in reading comprehension of pupils?
4.
To what extent does language experience instructional approach affect
the mean scores interest in reading comprehension of pupils?
5.
What is the effect of semantic memory cue instructional approach on mean
self-efficacy scores in reading comprehension of pupils?
6.
What is the effect of language experience approach on mean self-efficacy
scores in reading comprehension of pupils?
7.
What influence does gender have in mean reading comprehension
achievement scores of pupils based on exposure to semantic memory cues
instructional approach?
8.
What influence does gender have on the mean reading comprehension
achievement scores of pupils based on exposure to language experience instructional
approach?
9.
To what extent does gender influence the mean interest scores in reading
comprehension of pupils based on exposure to semantic memory cues instructional
approach?
10. To what extent does gender influence the mean
interest scores in reading comprehension of pupils based on exposure to
language experience instructional approach?
11. What is the influence of gender on mean self-efficacy
scores in reading comprehension of pupils based on exposure to semantic memory
cues instructional approach?
12. What is the influence of gender on mean self-efficacy
scores in reading comprehension of pupils based on exposure to language
experience instructional approach?
1.6 HYPOTHESES
The
following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at the 0.05 level of
significance.
i.
H01: There is no significant difference in the mean reading
comprehension achievement scores of
pupils who were exposed to semantic memory cues instructional approach and
those taught using conventional teaching method.
ii.
H02: There is no significant difference in the mean reading
comprehension achievement scores of
pupils who were exposed to language experience instructional approach and those
taught using conventional teaching method.
iii.
H03: There is no significant difference in the mean reading
comprehension interest scores of pupils
who were exposed to semantic memory cues
instructional approach and those taught using conventional teaching method.
iv.
H04: There is no significant difference in the mean reading
comprehension interest scores of pupils who were exposed to language experience
approach instructional approach and those taught using conventional teaching
method.
v.
H05: There is no significant difference in the mean reading
comprehension self-efficacy scores of
pupils who were exposed to semantic memory cues instructional approach and
those taught using conventional teaching
method.
vi.
H06: There is no significant difference in the mean reading
comprehension self-efficacy scores of
pupils who were exposed to language experience instructional approach and those
taught using conventional teaching
method.
vii.
H07: Gender has no significant influence on the mean reading
comprehension achievement scores
of pupils exposed to semantic memory cues instructional approach.
viii.
H08: Gender has no significant influence on the mean reading
comprehension achievement scores
of pupils exposed to language experience instructional approach.
ix.
H09: Gender has no significant influence on the mean reading
comprehension interest scores of pupils exposed to semantic memory cues instructional
approach.
x.
H010: Gender has no significant influence on the mean reading
comprehension interest scores of pupils exposed to language experience instructional
approach.
xi.
H011: There is no significant influence of gender on the mean
reading comprehension self- efficacy
scores of pupils who were exposed to semantic memory cues instructional approach.
xii.
H012: There is no significant influence of gender on the mean
reading comprehension self- efficacy
scores of pupils who were exposed to language experience instructional approach.
1.7 SCOPE
OF THE STUDY
The
study was delimited to 2017/2018 primary five pupils in Imo State. The study
focused on determining the effect of semantic memory cues and language
experience approaches on achievement, interest and self-efficacy belief in
reading comprehension of primary five pupils in Imo State. The independent
variables in this study include semantic memory cues and language experience
approaches, while the dependent variables are achievement, interest and
self-efficacy in reading comprehension with gender as moderator variable.
Comprehension tests were drawn from passages in English comprehension tests for
senior primary schools (primary five pupils) because these are the areas that
had been identified as presenting difficulty to the pupils.
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