ABSTRACT
Due to high cost of margarine which also reflected in the cost of bread, margarine was substituted with bone marrow in the ratios of 80: 20, 50:50 and 20: 80, while 100% margarine and bone marrow breads samples were controls. Together with other ingredients, the dough was formulated, proofed, molded, panned, proofed for 30 min, baked at 180oC for 35 min in the oven, cooled, wrapped and kept for analysis. Proximate, vitamin, mineral and the physical properties were evaluated with standard analytical methods. Sensory evaluation was carried out by subjective method while the energy values were by calculation. With increase in bone marrow substitution levels, fat (14.37-16.67%), ash (3.00-3.28%), protein (10.14-13.31%) and energy value (408.63-425.49kcal/g) increased. While moisture content (12.66-11.06%), fibre (0.17-0.14%) and carbohydrate (59.70-55.56 %) decreased. For minerals, calcium (45.25-47.05 mg/g) and iron (1.13-1.21 mg/g) increased while sodium (4.31-3.80 mg/g), magnesium (12.65-11.30 mg/g) and potassium (10.60-9.33 mg/g) decreased. Vitamins B1, thiamine, (0.33-0.50 mg/g), B2, riboflavin, (0.28-0.41 mg/g) and E (0.33-0.44 mg/g) increased while B3, niacin, (0.17-0.14mg/g) and vitamin A (1.70-1.54mg/g) decreased. All the physical qualities evaluated, oven spring (0.55-0.60), loaf weight (345.60-349.88 g), volume (537.29-558.88 cm3), specific volume (1.56-1.60 cm3/g) and crumb & crust colour (3.25-3.64) increased. Maximum acceptability of 7.70 was obtained from 80 margarine:20 bone marrow while the least accepted (7.15) was from 50 margarine: 50 bone marrow substitution levels. Bone marrow substitution of fat in bread baking is feasible and it actually improved the nutritional, energy and physical properties of the bread samples in most cases more than the control.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgments vi
Table of Content viii
List of Tables xiii
List of Figures xiv
List of Plates xv
Abstract xvi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Justification of the Study 3
1.4 Objective of the Study 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Overview of Bread 5
2.2 Nutritional and Health Benefits of Cereals 5
2.3 Wheat 6
2.2.1 Nutritional value and health benefits of wheat 7
2.2.2 Processing and food uses of wheat 9
2.2.3 Wheat gluten 10
2.3 Bakery Products 11
2.3.1 Nutritional composition and health benefits of bread 12
2.3.2 Bread baking process 13
2.3.3 Roles of basic bread baking ingredients 14
2.3.3.1 Yeast 14
2.3.3.2 Sugar 15
2.3.3.3 Salt 15
2.3.3.4 Fats 15
2.3.3.4.1 Effects of partial replacement of fat in bread 17
2.4 Overview of Bone Marrow 18
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 20
3.1 Sources of Raw Materials 20
3.2 Sample Preparation 20
3.2.1 Production of wheat flour 20
3.2.2 Extraction of bone marrow 20
3.2.3 Production of bread 24
3.3 Methods of Analyses 25
3.3.1 Determination of proximate composition of bread samples 25
3.3.1.1 Moisture content 26
3.3.1.2 Crude protein 26
3.3.1.3 Ash 27
3.3.1.4 Fat 27
3.3.1.5 Crude fiber 28
3.3.1.6 Carbohydrate 28
3.3.1.7 Energy value 29
3.3.2 Determination of Physical Properties of Bread 29
3.3.2.1 Determination of bread weight 29
3.3.2.2 Determination of loaf volume 29
3.3.2.3 Determination of specific volume (SV) 30
3.3.2.4 Determination of oven spring (OS) 30
3.3.2.5 Determination of colour intensity 30
3.3.3 Determination of Mineral Content of Bread Samples 31
3.3.3.1 Determination of iron 31
3.3.3.2 Determination of calcium and magnesium 31
3.3.3.3 Determination of potassium 32
3.3.3.4 Determination of sodium 32
3.3.4 Determination of Vitamin Content of Bread Samples 33
3.3.4.1 Determination of pro-vitamin A 33
3.3.4.2 Determination of thiamin 34
3.3.4.3 Determination of riboflavin 34
3.3.4.4 Determination of niacin 35
3.3.4.6 Determination of vitamin E 35
3.3.5 Sensory Evaluation of Bread Samples 36
3.3.6 Experimental design 37
3.3.7 Statistical analysis 37
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 38
4.1 Proximate Composition of Bread Samples 38
4.2 Vitamin Content of the Bread Samples 42
4.3 Mineral Composition of the Bread Samples 46
4.4 Physical Characteristics of the Bread Samples 49
4.5 Sensory Characteristics of the Bread Samples 57
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 61
5.2 Recommendations 61
REFERENCES 62
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Recipe for bread production 22
Table 2: Effects of bone marrow on the proximate composition of bread Samples 39
Table 3: Effects of Bone marrow on the Vitamin Content of the Bread Samples (mg/100g) 44
Table 4: Effects of bone marrow on the Mineral Content of the Bread Samples (mg/g) 47
Table 5: Effects of bone marrow on the Physical Properties of the Bread Samples 51
Table 6: Effects of bone marrow on the Acceptability levels of the Bread Samples 58
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Flow chart for the production of the wheat flour 21
Figure 2: Flow chart for extraction of bone marrow 23
Figure 3: Flow chart for bread production 25
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Whole wheat grains 22
Plate 2: Wheat flour 22
Plate 3: Bone marrow 23
Plate 4:100% margarine 54
Plate 5: 80/20 54
Plate 6: 50/50 55
Plate 7: 20/80 55
Plate 8: 100% bone marrow 56
Plate 9: Respective transverse sections of the bread samples 56
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Bread is the second most widely consumed non-indigenous food product after rice (Oluwajoba et al., 2012). It is a fermented confectionery product produced mainly from wheat flour, yeast, water, sugar, salt, shortening and other ingredients according to choice. The processes involve mixing, kneading, proofing, shaping and baking (Dewettinck et al., 2008). Bread is an excellent source of complex carbohydrates that provide the body with the energy needed (Kourkouta et al., 2017). It is also a good source of micronutrient that is essential for human health (Oluwajoba et al., 2012). When formulating ingredients for bread production, factors like health benefits, fat replacement and interaction of ingredients are put into consideration (Ibrahim et al., 2015).
Fats are very vital raw materials for several food products like confectionery. In bread making, fat improves gas retention in the dough thereby increasing its volume and softness and in turn imparting a desirable texture on bread (Manzocco et al., 2012). More so, fat enhances the caloric value and fat soluble vitamins in bread (Wu et al., 2013), retards drying out, aids the expansion of gluten network and tend to “shorten” the gluten strands in bread flour (Manzocco et al., 2012).
The consumption of animal by-products has continued to witness tremendous growth over the last decade. This is due to its potential to combat food insecurity in many countries (Babatunde et al., 2017). Bone marrow, an animal by-product is divided into medulla ossiumrubra (red marrow), which consists mainly of hematopoietic tissue, and medulla ossiumflava (yellow marrow), which is mainly made up of fat cells (Adeyeye, 2014). Bone marrow can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous (spongy) tissue (Adeyeye, 2014). Bone marrow is a source of vitamin A, vitamin E, calcium and iron (Hassan et al., 2014). Its fat is located in the bone marrow cavity and accounts for 70 % of a bone marrow volume (Fazeli et al., 2013). Adeyeye (2014) reported that ram and bull bone marrow contains crude fat (98.20 to 98.70 %), saturated fatty acids (25.40 to 43.30 %), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (41.50 to 45.50 %), and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (15.20 to 29.10%). Many factors like the high cost and availability of butter prompted its partial substitution with bone marrow.
Wheat flour is the major raw material for bread production. Wheat flour is also used in production of cookies (Ikuomola et al., 2017) and chin-chin of desirable texture and flavour (Adebayo-Oyetoro et al., 2017). The wide use of wheat flour in the production of confectioneries like bread is due to the unique properties of its protein (gluten) which combines strength and elasticity required to produce baked products of desirable texture (Oluwafemi and Seidu, 2017). Wheat flour is processed from wheat grain which possess minerals like selenium, magnesium (Topping, 2007), and carotenoids (Piironen et al., 2013). Shewry and Hey (2015) reported that in addition to being a major source of starch and energy, wheat also provides substantial amounts of a number of components which are essential for health, notably protein, vitamins (notably B vitamins), dietary fiber and phytochemicals.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Food security relates directly to nutrition and health. Typically, food security is thought of as being related to availability and access to foodstuffs. Yet, the threat to food security also lies with urbanization, income disparity, overpopulation (Havas and Salman, 2011), and increased agricultural waste (Ziarati et al., 2018). Agricultural waste is a global problem along the food supply chain. Agricultural waste relates to organic matter disposed of by humans during processing of agricultural products. Bone marrow which has the potential to be partly used as fat analogue in production of confectionaries like bread are often discarded, thus resulting to overreliance on margarine which in turn cause increase in its price. Unfortunately, fat used in Nigerian baking industries are all imported (Nwanekezi and Umeonuorah, 2013), thus, depleting the country’s scarce foreign exchange. Furthermore, Renzyaeva (2013) stated that margarine contains considerable amounts of saturated fatty acids and fatty acid transisomers which frequent consumption results to decreased resistance to oncology dseases, increased risk of diabetes, and lead to cardiovascular disorders.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Partial substitution of fat with bone marrow in production of bread will not only reduce increased wastage of bone marrow but will also reduce over reliance on butter in bread production and as well contribute in conserving the country’s scarce foreign exchange used in importing margarine. More so, this will reduce intake of margarine which had been reported to be detrimental to human’s health and as well reduce the environmental pollution due to indiscriminate dumping of bones. This study will make known to bakery industries the possibility of partial substitution of fat with bone marrow in production of bread. A new variety of bread is put on the table of consumers which may in turn encourage home bread baking as a result of reduced cost of fat. Findings of this study will be of great benefit to researchers. It will also be incorporated in Nigeria’s food composition table so that provision of dietary guidance using such food composition database as a reference material could be more effective.
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the quality parameters of bread as affected by partial substitution of fat with bone marrow.
The specific objectives are to:
i. Produce flour from wheat grains.
ii. Produce bread samples using the wheat flour and different proportions of bone marrow.
iii. Determine the proximate, vitamin, mineral and physical properties of the bread.
iv. Evaluate the acceptability levels of the bread samples.
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