MODELLING OF THE EFFECT OF SOIL COMPACTION ON THE STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN AGRICULTURAL SOILS AND GROWTH OF MAIZE AND COWPEA IN THE HUMID TROPICS

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ABSTRACT

During agricultural operations such as bush clearing, soil preparation, planting, and crop harvesting the soil is subjected to high compaction stresses. However, the magnitude of stress-induced on the soil by agricultural machines is seldom studied, especially in the humid tropics. This study examines the response of Zea mays and Phaseolus vulgaris on loamy clay soil and loamy sand soil compacted at different levels. The soils were compacted at the following levels: 0 blow (control), 5 blows, 10 blows and 15 blows. Numerical simulation was performed using PLAXIS 2D to ascertain the stress distribution in the soil due to vehicular load. Results show that the coefficient of permeability of the soil was affected by compaction with more than a 70 % reduction in the loamy clay. The compaction of the soil led to a reduction in the plant height, biomass, and root density. There was a significant difference between the root weight based on the different compaction levels and soil type with p-values < 0.001. Generally, on both the loamy clay and loamy sand soils there were apparent signs of compaction stresses on the leaves of the Zea mays and Phaseolus vulgaris, making the plant leaves pale in colour and pancake-like. The from the numerical simulation show that stress distribution in the soil due to vehicular loads increase in the void ratio and increase in depth directly below the axles but increases with depth between the axles. There was a higher concentration of the effective stress at the midpoint (i.e., directly under the wheel) of the tyres compared to the stresses in between the axles; with a maximum of 107.53kPa, 101.67kPa, 87.49kPa, 79.19kPa, 72.31kPa for 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 0.9 soil void ratios, respectively for the front axle. Rear tyres transmit more stress to the soil compared to the front tyres. It is concluded that soil compaction changes soil structure by increasing bulk density and penetration resistance and decreasing the total porosity of the soil, with negative consequences to crop growth and development.





TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover page                                                                                                                              i

Title page                                                                                                                                ii

Approval page                                                                                                                        iii

Certification                                                                                                                           iv

Dedication                                                                                                                              v

Acknowledgment                                                                                                                   vi

Table of contents                                                                                                                    vii

Abstract                                                                                                                                  vi

CHAPTER 1 

INTRODUCTION                                                                                                                1

1.1 Background of the study                                                                                                   1

1.2 Statement of the problem                                                                                                 4

1.3 Aim and objectives                                                                                                           5

1.4 Justification of study                                                                                                         6

1.5 Scope of study                                                                                                                  6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW                                                                                                    7

2.1 Food security and agricultural mechanization                                                                 7

2.2 Soil compaction                                                                                                                10

2.3 Causes of soil compaction                                                                                                12

2.4 Factors affecting soil compaction                                                                                    14

2.5 Measurement of soil compaction                                                                                     16

2.6 Benefit of soil compaction                                                                                               18

2.7 Effect of soil compaction on soil properties                                                                     18

2.7.1 Soil porosity                                                                                                                  22

2.7.2 Soil strength                                                                                                                   22

2.7.3 Water infiltration rate                                                                                                    23

2.7.4 Reduction of aeration                                                                                                    23

2.8 Effect of soil compaction on agricultural productivity                                                    23

2.8.1 Effect of soil compaction on crop growth and development                                        24

2.8.2 Plant Height       -                                                                                                           25

2.8.3 Crop vegetative growth                                                                                                 25

2.8.4 Crop root systems and growth                                                                                       26

2.8.5 Crop lodging                                                                                                                  28

2.8.6 Plant nutrient uptake                                                                                                      28

2.8.7 Plant water uptake                                                                                                         29

2.8.8 Effect of soil compaction on biomass and crop yield and economics                                    30

2.8.9 Effect of Soil Compaction on Draft Force Requirement and Fuel Use                                    31

CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL AND METHOD                                                                                             33

3.1 Study Area                                                                                                                        32

3.2 Materials                                                                                                                           34

3.3 Experimentation                                                                                                               34

3.4Sampling                                                                                                                            34

3.5Soil test                                                                                                                              35

3.5.1 Particle size distribution                                                                                                35

3.5.2 Natural moisture content                                                                                               35

3.5.3 Permeability Test                                                                                                           36

3.5.4 Oedometer Test                                                                                                             37

3.5.5 Direct Shear Test                                                                                                           39

3.6 Compaction Treatment of the Soil                                                                                   40

3.7 Planting                                                                                                                             40

3.8 Measurement of the Plant Traits                                                                                      41

3.9 Finite Element Model                                                                                                       41

3.9.1 Mesh and Model Geometry                                                                                           41

3.9.2 Stress-strain constitutive relationship                                                                           42

3.10 Statistical Analysis                                                                                                         43

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION                                                                                           44

4.1 Soil Characterization                                                                                                        44

4.2 Effect of compaction on bulk density                                                                              45

4.3 Effect of compaction on the permeability of the soil                                                       47

4.4 Effect of compaction on plant growth                                                                              48

4.4.1 Plant height                                                                                                                    48

4.4.2 Plant root                                                                                                                       50

4.5 Stress distribution in the soil due to compaction                                                             54

4.5.1 Soil model and properties                                                                                              54

4.5.2 Vehicle model and tyre configuration                                                                           51

4.5.3 Finite element simulation                                                                                              56

4.5.4 Vertical stress propagation                                                                                            58

4.5.5 Effective stress between the axle                                                                                  60

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION                                                                  63

5.1 Conclusions                                                                                                                      63

5.2 Recommendation                                                                                                             64

REFERENCES                                                                                                                     62

APPENDIX                                                                                                                           77

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES


Figure 2.1:      Soil compacted due to machinery traffic causing soil damage, increased

waterlogging, and reduced water infiltration.                                                8

Figure 2.2        Effect of soil compaction on the properties of soil and its productivity     10

Figure 2.3        Degradation of soil due to soil compaction in different continents                  12

Figure 2.4:       Estimated area of field trafficking for three typical tillage system

experiment in Champaign County                                                                  20

Figure 2.5:       Effect of soil compaction due to combining harvester traffic on

penetrometer resistance ploughed silty loam soil.                                         21

Figure 2.6:       Soil compaction due to machinery traffic in a soybean crop field                 23

Figure 2.7:       Effect of soil compaction on corn growth and development                                    25

Figure 2.8:       Rooting length of cereals 7 days after planting under-uncompacted

and compacted soil.                                                                                        27

Figure. 3.1       Map of the study location                                                                               33

Figure 3.2        Oedometer test machine                                                                                 38

Figure 4.1:       Particle size distribution of the loamy sand (LS) and loamy clay (LC)

used for the study                                                                                            39

Figure 4.2:       Plot of bulk density against compaction level                                                40

Figure 4.3:       Plot of coefficient of permeability of soil against the different compaction

level                                                                                                                42

Figure 4.4a:     Plot of plant height (cm) against the plant age (days) for zea maize (corn)    42

Figure 4.4b:     Plot of plant height (cm) against the plant age (days) for Phaseolus vulgaris 44

Figure 4.5:       Plot of the number of roots versus the soil depth (cm)                                47

Figure 4.6:       Boxplot of the biomass                                                                                   49

Figure 4.7:       Calibration of the Oedometer test parameters                                                50

Figure 4.8:       Model domain showing the boundary conditions, soil and wheel loads     53

Figure 4.9:       Effective vertical stress distribution in the soil with depth for the various

void ratios                                                                                                       54

Figure 4.10:     Effective vertical stress distribution between the axles in the soil with

depth for the various void ratios                                                                     56

Figure 4.11:     Stress bulb of the soil induced by tractor loads                                              58

 

 


 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1:        Summary of the properties of the soil used for the study                             40

Table 4.2:        Plant roots as affected by soil compaction.                                                    46

Table 4.3:        Calibration of the soil parameters obtained from the oedometer test             50

Table 4.4: Configuration of the vehicle and tyre properties used in the PLAXIS 2D model 52

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION


            1.1           Background of the Study

The performance of agricultural soils plays an important role in food production necessary for the survival of man (Hillel, 2009). Soil is a non-renewable resource, which has the potential for a high rate of degradation but has slow regeneration and formation processes (Van-Camp et al., 2004). Hence, the sustainable use of soil is essential to curb the menace of food insecurity, water inadequacy, biodiversity, and climate change (Lal, 2009).

Soil degradation causes a substantial reduction in agricultural productivity and has always been a great distress to farmers (Duran and Rodriguez, 2008). The rapid increase in global population has led to excessive land exploitation, resulting from the mechanization of forests and farms in almost all developed countries as well as developing countries.  Hence, soil degradation will remain an important global issue in the twenty-first century (Yang et al., 2016).

Soil compaction is one of the physical forms of soil degradation which leads to changes in soil structure and influences soil productivity (Hamza and Anderson, 2003). Again, a plant’s ability to obtain mineral nutrients and water from the soil is dependent on its capacity to develop extensive root systems. Soil compaction, which refers to the densification of soil layers (Arora, 2007), may restrict deep root growth. This will adversely affect plant access to subsoil water, especially during periods of sparse rainfall and high evapotranspiration; this is typical within the middle to late growing season (Chen and Weil, 2010). The resulting increased drought stress may limit plant growth and yield (Bouwman and Arts, 2000).  Hence, the compaction of agricultural soils has been a major problem for agricultural practice globally including in Nigeria, leading to a reduction in crop yield (Adekalu and Osunbitan, 2000).

Unlike other forms of soil degradation (e.g., water logging, salinity, or soil erosion), which can be identified from the surface of the soil, compaction of soils causes hidden destruction of the soil structure (Hamza and Anderson, 2003). Hence, it is difficult to locate and rationalize. According to Cavalieri et al. (2008), changes in soil water content because of soil compaction modify soil moisture tension and diffusion of gases, resistance to penetration, hydraulic conductivity, air permeability and other soil physical properties.  Soil compaction causes a reduction in soil porosity with a concomitant increase in soil bulk density and a decrease in air permeability and hydraulic conductivity (Arora, 2007). It is also coupled with the decline in hydraulic conductivity of soil and the development of hard crust below the tilled layer and smeared layer (Arora, 2007). While some crops require moderate compaction, others are very sensitive to compaction (Adekalu and Osunbitan, 2000).

Currently, heavier, and stronger Machines/tractors have been used on farmland aimed at reducing human labour (Mari et al., 2006). The vast majority of soil compaction and shearing in modern agriculture is due to vehicular traffic, which is an integral part of the soil management system. The increasing size of agricultural implements is a significant cause of induced soil compaction and deterioration of soil structure. In addition, many agronomic practices must be performed frequently in a very short time and when soil is wet and conducive to compaction. This results in deeper stress penetration and subsoil compaction.

To alleviate the effect of soil compaction deep ripping has been used (Schmidt et al., 1994), but the benefits of deep tillage may be short-living (Calonego and Rosolem, 2010) and costly in terms of energy and time. The use of deep tillage to alleviate compaction also disrupts the surface mulch that develops after years of no-till management, increasing the soil’s susceptibility to erosion and sealing (Wiermann et al., 2000).

Reduction in crop yield due to soil compaction may be minimized if we can develop a better understanding of soil behaviour under various stresses. This will entail the development of compaction characteristic curves and predictive equations which will provide a guide for farmers in choosing the best condition for carrying out farming operations (Adekalu and Osunbitan, 2000). Again, this is particularly important in Nigeria where there is no standardization of machinery for agricultural production (Adekalu and Osunbitan, 2000). The effect of compaction on the stress distribution with depth in agricultural soils in Nigeria is rarely studied. Since soil type can affect the rate of soil compaction,it is pertinent to study the effects of compaction on the productivity of different varieties of crops in Nigeria. Hence, this present study intends to ascertain the effects of different capacityloads on soil physical properties relevant to root proliferation and crop yield using maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) as a case study.

Maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are one of the major food grains of the tropics, “grown in the rain forest and derived savannah zones of Nigeria” (Olaniyi and Adewale, 2012). Its economic value has increased tremendously over the years. According to Iken and Amusa, (2004), because many agro-based industries depend on maize as raw material, maize farming (cultivation) has transited from subsistence-level to commercial level. Apart from sorghum, maize is the most important cereal crop in Nigeria (FAO, 2013).  The Central Bank of Nigeria in 2014, estimated a 1.2% growth in maize crop production (CBN, 2014). Abba (2017) noted that Nigeria as the largest producer of maize in Africa, producing about 8.0 million tons per annum; most of these productions are mechanized. It is well known that compaction could affect plant growth, but this effect has been rarely quantified. In this regard, the results from the study will be important in quantifying the effects of compaction on maize productivity. This study performed a numerical simulation to understand the elastoplastic stress-strain response of the soil to due induced stress from tractors.


            1.2           Statement of the Problem

Soil degradation is a global menace, leading to ecological challenges such as soil erosion, landslides, and poor performance of plants. The physicochemical properties of soil are altered due to soil degradation (Yang et al., 2016), which invariably affects the agricultural potential of the soil. Hence, altering biodiversity and ecosystem succession (Kumar et al., 2013), reduces seedling's development and growth (Juying et al., 2009; Shrivastva and Kumar, 2015). This, therefore, affects food security. Soil degradation is caused by natural (Singh and Kumar 2018) or anthropogenic activities (Kumar et al. 2016). Soil compaction is the physical form of soil degradation resulting sometimes from farming practices.

The growing human population has necessitated the need for increased food production to cater for the teeming population. Hence, the use of heavy machines/tractors for farming activities has become a norm. According to Muhammed et al. (2015), this increased use of power machines with high wheel loads leads to the compaction of the subsoil layers in agricultural fields or lands.

Soil compaction occurs mostly from the passage of tractor wheels during cultivation practice. Studies have shown that compaction alters the soil's chemical and physical properties such as bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, water infiltration, soil air permeability etc. (Lipec and Hatano, 2003; Sakai et al., 2008). The compaction of soil is responsible for the degradation of soil across the globe (Flowers and Lal, 1998; Hamza and Anderson, 2003). This affects plant root proliferation and invariably food security. To curb this menace, it will be necessary to ascertain the optimum level of compaction required for different classes and types of plant root systems. Again, if the soil compaction is carried out in steep slopes, this can result in increased runoff and ultimately increase soil erosion and sediment transport which could be a serious problem for the landscape as well as crop survival.


            1.3           Aim and Objectives

The general objective of this study is to ascertain the effect of compaction of two different agricultural soils on the performance of maize (Zea mays) and Cowpea (Phaseolus vulgaris) and to model the stress distribution in soil due to tractor loads.


1.3.1    Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study are to:

(i)             Ascertain the response of the above and below-ground traits of maize and cowpea due to varying levels of compaction.

(ii)           Study the relationship between soil type, soil hydraulic conductivity of the soil and compaction levels.

(iii)         Compare the performance of the maize and cowpea on soil compacted at different levels.

(iv)          Carry out a numerical simulation of the stress regime in the soil due to applied machinery loads.

 

            1.4           Justification of Study

Compaction has been shown to affect nutrient uptake and may induce nutrient deficiencies (Batey, 2009). Reduced aeration in wheel tracks has been shown to increase the potential for denitrification, which could cause nitrogen deficiency if enough nitrogen is lost. Knowing that maize is one of the important cereals consumed in Nigeria (Abba, 2017), it will be important to ascertain the impact of compaction on its productivity and performance. The result of the study will serve as a guide to farmers and decision-makers in choosing the best type of equipment to be used for farming activities. This study will also contribute to more understanding of the effect of compaction on the physical properties of different types of soil. It will also quantify the effect of compaction on soil physical properties due to soil type or classification.


            1.5           Scope of Study

The performance of Zea mays and Phaseolus vulgarisin soils compacted at different levels was evaluated. Several laboratory experiments such as permeability, bulk density and infiltration test etc. were carried out using standard laboratory techniques to ascertain the physical properties of the soil compacted with varying loads. Again, the study ascertained the above-ground and below-ground traits of the Zea mays and Phaseolus vulgarisplants as they grow. A numerical model was carried out to determine the stress distribution in the soil due to typical loads coming from tractors.

 

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