ABSTRACT
The study analyzed the social exclusion of women’s voices in rural community development in South-east, Nigeria. The study specifically ascertained women’s economic status in the communities, examined the extent of women’s exclusion from administrative and development activities, assessed the extent of women’s exclusion from decision-making processes, determined the women’s opinion regarding who takes decisions for community priority projects, among others. Multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted in selecting 360 respondents for the study. Primary data were collected through the use of structured questionnaire and analyzed using both descriptive (frequency, percentages, mean) and inferential (multiple regression, ANOVA) statistics. Pooled grand mean results from the three selected States affirmed that women had high level of exclusion from the decision making process (x = 2,85), were not involved in decision making on community projects (x = 1.72), were ready to accept leadership positions (x = 3.20), made contributions to community developments (x = 3.47), faced socio-cultural barriers in decision making (x = 3.54) and agreed that “August Meetings” projects women’s voices. Results of multiple regression showed that the coefficients of ownership of properties (1%), access to micro-savings (1%), were statistically significant though negatively related to women’s exclusion in community administration; coefficients of education (1%), monthly income (1%), significantly influenced women’s exclusion from community development activities; the coefficients of ownership of property (5%), access to paid employment (1%) were statistically significant and negatively related to social exclusion from decision making and the coefficients of education (5%), occupation (5%) were statistically significant and inversely related to women’s exclusion in decision making in the area. ANOVA result revealed that F-test (1.686) was not statistically significant at P < 0.05, indicating that women’s opinion regarding who takes decisions for priority projects in the communities differed significantly. The ANOVA result equally revealed that F-test was not statistically significant at P < 0.05, indicating the women’s readiness to accept leadership position did not differ significantly across the States. The study concluded that women had low inclusion in community administration, had high level of exclusion from decision making processes, and faced socio-cultural barriers. The study therefore, recommended that Community decision-making processes and executive positions in community administration should not be male dominated. Nigerian customary laws should be designed to ensure gender equality.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgments v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables ix
List of Figures x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER 1 -
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 9
1.3 Research Questions 13
1.4 Objectives of the Study 14
1.5 Hypotheses for the Study 15
1.6 Significance of the Study 15
1.7. Scope of the Study 17
1.8 Definition of Terms 17
CHAPTER 2
- LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual
Review 20
2.1.1 Rural
area
21
2.1.2 Community
22
2.1.3 Development
22
2.1.4 Rural
and community development 23
2.1.5 Women
and community development 26
2. 1.6 Women and economic development 27
2.1.7 Leadership 28
2.1.8 Women
and leadership 29
2.1.9 Access
to decision-making 34
2.1.10 Women and family decision-making 35
2.1.11 Women in community administration decision-making 36
2.1.12 Voice 38
2.1.13 Gender 39
2.1.14 Gender equity 40
2.1.15 Gender equality 40
2.1.16 Gender inequality 41
2.1.17 Gender planning 42
2.1.18 Religion 42
2.1.19 Low literacy level 43
2.1.20 Poverty 43
2.1.21 Monetization of leadership position 44
2.1.22 Gender power relations 44
2.1.23 Social norms 45
2.1.24 Culture 45
2.1.25 Control over resources 46
2.1.26 Gender roles and power relations 46
2.1.27 Social exclusion 46
2.1.27.1 Definition of social
exclusion 46
2.1.27.2 People affected by social
exclusion 47
2.1.27.3 Causes of social exclusion 49
2.1.27.4 Effects of social exclusion 49
2.1.27.5 Social exclusion leads to
conflict and insecurity 51
2.1.28 August meeting 51
2.2 Review of Empirical Studies 52
2.3 Theoretical Review 54
2.3.1 Theory of gender
oppression/patriarchy 54
2.3.2
Feminist theories 55 55
2.3.3 Theory of change 57
2.4 Theoretical Framework
58
2.5 Conceptual Framework
59
2.5.1 Independent variables
60
2.5.2 Moderating variables 60
2.5.3 Intervening variables 61
2.5.4 The Dependent variables 61
CHAPTER 3 -METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area 64
3.2. Population of the Study 65
3.3. Sample and Sampling Procedure 65
3.4 Method of Data Collection 66
3.5 Validity of Instrument 66
3.6 Reliability of Instrument 67
3.7 Method of Data Analysis 67
3.8 Measurement of Variables 67
3.9 Model Specification 72
CHAPTER 4 -
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1
Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondents 80
4.2
Women’s Economic Status in the Communities 85
4.3
Extent of Women’s Inclusion in Administrative and Development Activities 87
4.4
Extent of Women’s Exclusion from the Decision-Making Processes in the Communities 90
4.5
Women’s Opinion Regarding who takes Decisions for Community Priority Projects 93
4.6
Readiness of Women to Accept Leadership Position in the Communities
96
4.7
Contributions of Women in Rural Community Development 99
4.8
Social-Cultural Barrier Women Face in Decision- Making 101
4.9
Role of “August Meeting” in Projecting Women’s Voice in the Community
Development 104
4.10
Hypotheses Testing 106
CHAPTER
5 – Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Summary 120
5.2 Conclusion 124
5.3
Recommendations 125
References 128
Appendix 138
LIST
OF TABLES
4.1:
Distribution of respondents according to their socio-economic
characteristics 80
4.2: Mean
rating of the women’s economic status in the communities in the study area 85
4.3: Mean rating of the extent of women’s inclusion
in administrative and development activities in the communities in the study
area 87
4.4: Mean
rating of the extent of women exclusion in decision making process in communities in the study area. 90
4.5: Mean rating of the opinions of women regarding
who takes decision for community
priority projects in the study area 93
4.6: Mean
rating of the readiness of women to accept leadership positions in the
communities in the study area 96
4.7: Mean
rating of the contributions of women in rural community development 99
4.8: Mean
rating of the socio-cultural barriers women face in decision-making in
communities. 101
4.9: Mean
rating of the role of women’s ‘August meeting’ in projecting women voice community development in the
study area. 104
4.10: Multiple
regression estimates of the relationship between women’s exclusion from community administration and their
economic status in the study area.
106
4.11: OLS
Regression result of the relationship between women’s exclusion from community
development activities and their selected socio-economic characteristics in the
study area 109
4.12: Multiple regression estimates of the
relationship between women’s exclusion in
decision-making processes and their economic status in the study area.
112
4.13: OLS Regression result of the
relationship between women’s exclusion from
decision-making processes in rural communities and
their selected
socio-economic characteristics in the study area 115
4.14: ANOVA
(DNMRT) showing differences in women’s opinions regarding who takes decisions for priority projects
across the States. 118
4.15: ANOVA (DNMRT) showing differences in the
women’s readiness to accept leadership positions across the State. 119
LIST OF FIGURES
1: Conceptual
Framework for women’s voices in community development
63
2: Map
of South-East Nigeria 65
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Development
can be described as a process by which man maximizes his control and use of the
natural resources in his environment for his satisfaction, (Raheem & Bako,
20p14). Development of a rural community involves the transformation of the
area into a socially, economically,
politically, educationally, orderly and materially desirable condition, with
the aim of improving the standard of
living of the rural populace by themselves, (Nwachukwu 2018; Nwosu 2009). Rural
community can only experience development when individuals or group of
individuals pool their resources together to solve common problems for the
welfare of the masses. Actions and initiatives taken to improve the well-being
of the people in the rural areas can be seen as rural development.
Rural
community development is a strategy adopted by the rural people to identify
their own needs/problems, find solutions to the identified problem by
themselves instead of relying wholly on the government for solutions. Ekong (2010) noted that community
development can be seen as concerted effort by the rural people to recognize
their needs and assume increasing responsibilities for solving their identified
problems and also ensure active participation of the citizens in their rural
life. According to Nwachukwu (2018) community development includes all efforts
made by the people themselves, government and Non-governmental Organizations to
improve the quality of life and services of a place. Community development
seeks to strengthen the capacity of local members to act collectively to
improve their physical, social, economic, and political environment. Ojonemi
and Ogwo (2013) defined rural development as a multidimensional approach by
which the productivity, income and quality of life in terms of health,
nutrition, education, and other characteristics of satisfactory life of rural
people can be improved or transformed. However, rural development effort seeks
to transform or change social and economic structures and processes of the
rural setting. In other words, rural community development comprises wide range
of approaches and activities that aim to improve the welfare and livelihoods of
people.
Furthermore,
during the colonial administration, the spirit of self- help, as expressed in
rural community development, enabled the people to build their schools,
churches, council halls, construct and maintain their roads. Omeje (2014) highlighted that the
ancient Igbo communities had always organized themselves in the manner that
would enable them solve their problems communally. Communities and villages had
networks of roads and pathways connecting to other villages, streams, markets
and farm lands. The traditional administrative systems stipulated functions for
every group in the society or community, such as, men, women, children, young
men, young women, old men, and old women groups respectively. Members of each
group were conscious of their functions and would not readily deviate.
It fostered, strengthened and maintained inter and intra community ties. It is an age-long practice through
which communities improved the living standards of their people.
The
end of the Nigerian civil war witnessed an interesting and significant landmark
in the history of community development across the states in the zone. As the people came back to their villages
after the war, the whole area was devastated and with little or no assistance
from both the then State and Federal Governments, the people quickly mobilized
their resources to rebuild their war battered economy and social
infrastructures (Akpomuvie, 2010).
Women
make significant contributions to socio-economic transformation in the
developing countries. In Nigeria, the roles women play in the development of
the home is diverse, ranging from child bearing to caring for children, the elderly
and the sick. In several parts of Nigeria, rural women are the mainstay of
small scale farming, the labor force and the day to day household subsistence.
The burden of collection of fuel wood, water and other reproductive roles
disproportionately falls on women and children, (Ogunjemilua and Familugba, 2015).
The women also are responsible for domestic, public and environmental
sanitations in rural communities involving house cleaning, disposal of domestic
wastes, clearing the area around water supply points such as dug wells/boreholes
and draining standing waste water. Women in
the rural areas are involved in several productive activities yet their roles
are never reflected in the mainstream public development agenda.
Despite
the pivotal roles women play in rural community administration and development
in Nigeria they face certain socio-cultural barriers which exclude them from
decision-making processes and structures and make their voices not count and
heard in setting rural community development agenda and outcomes (Agbalajobi 2010,
World Bank, 2012). For poor women this experience of exclusion is doubled not
only that they live in remote rural villages in their communities but they are
also denied a voice within their states, markets, communities and households in
which they live. (Hoare & Gell, 2009). The lack of voice excludes women’s
access to decision-making and agenda setting processes and thus opportunities
for leading these processes ultimately makes women invisible actors in their
communities (Hoare & Gell, 2009, Okafor and Akokuwebe, 2015). The
socio-cultural barriers include gender roles and power relations that combine
to keep women subordinate to men. For instance, allocation of resources for
education and training often favors boys and men, (Nwachukwu, 2018). Women’s
low status in Nigeria is mainly the result of traditional gender roles which
increasingly confines women to the domestic arena. Men and boys on the other
hand are accorded greater authority and opportunities and exert control both
within family and community; most especially in decision-making. Women’s low literacy
levels, poverty and inadequate access to opportunities and vital resources, intersect
to make Nigerian women economically disadvantaged and in this way deprive them
the chance to acquire resources to participate in agenda setting forum / fora;
the result being exclusion of their
voice. The absence of women’s voices in
decision-making which affects their lives is not only a problem for women but
is usually a sign of unjust power relations that exclude many men as well
(Gaventa, 2009). Women’s equal participation and leadership in decision-making
processes at the household, village, community, state and national levels is
therefore a fundamental effort to eliminate gender-based poverty (Hoare & Gell,
2009, Okafor and Akokuwebe, 2015). In order to challenge the unequal and
ultimately unsustainable economic and social systems in their communities where
they live, and to secure the essential resources they need for dignified and
rewarding lives, it is expected that women be visible in their rural
communities where they live and work.
Women
face many obstacles across nearly every aspect of socio-economic life in
achieving sound and fulfilling lives in Nigeria. Women’s economic opportunities also still
woefully lag behind men’s in almost every part of the country (Makama, 2013; Enfield,
2019). There is a sharp contrast between the income generating and livelihood
opportunities of women and men across different sectors in Nigeria. For
example, in the industrial sector it is only 11% as compared with 30% for men
(Butterworth, Abdulsalam-Saghir and Adrienne, 2008). They have more difficulties
than men in gaining access to assets such as land, property, finance/credit
facilities etc. Women’s success in terms of employment is constrained by lower
level of education, barriers in access to finance and digital connectivity and
other gender specific factors such as domestic demands etc (Enfield, 2019).
Women are often financially dependent on men
or do not have control over economic resources (Nwachukwu and Ukpai, 2019).
While widespread discrimination affects women’s socio-economic development,
women’s inadequate access to leadership positions destroy women the most by
denying them the instrument to change their status quo. Without adequate access
to leadership positions and decision-making forums, women’s participation in
community consultation, debates, meetings, specialized committee meetings among
others, which constitute the world of community decision-making processes, are
increasingly limited. When these women are not part and parcel of the
processes, their voice can never be heard. Men tend to dominate in
decision-making processes in the rural areas. It is therefore necessary to
allow women to take part in the administrative and development processes in
their various localities.
Rural women in Nigeria make up about 60-80
percent of the labor force (Enfield 2019). Despite their contributions to rural
development and agriculture, they are not recognized. The women have little or
no part to play in decision making process regarding agricultural development,
(Ogunleta and Mukhtar, 2009).
Women
have more difficulties than men in gaining access to assets such as land,
property, finance/credit facilities etc, and their success in of employment is
constrained by lower level of education, barriers in access to finance and
digital connectivity and other gender specific factors such as domestic demands
etc (Enfield 2019). The difficulties experienced by women in gaining access to
productive resources is as a result of discrimination. Discrimination against
women affects their socio-economic development and overall involvement in rural
community development.
Social exclusion simply means social
discrimination. It is also part of gender inequality in the world today. Social exclusion is a multidimensional
phenomenon. The diverse dimensions of social exclusion include exclusion from
production and economic system, consumption system, social system, political
system and educational system. Babajanian and Hagan-Zanker (2012) indicated
that there are three key dimensions of deprivation: exclusion from
participation in social processes including celebrations and ceremonial events
and social interactions in the society, exclusion from participation from
income sources and essential services and exclusion from participation in the
public sphere. Silver (2007) defined social exclusion as a multi-dimensional
process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and individuals form
social relations and institutions and preventing them from full participation
in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the society in which they
live. Social exclusion can also be referred to as social marginalization. It
can be seen as the experience of social, cultural and economic inequalities. It
is a situation whereby certain individuals, groups or communities are pushed to
the borderlines of society and cannot participate fully because of poverty,
inadequate education, lack or underdeveloped skills (Silver 2007). As a result,
some individuals or groups may be excluded from some, not necessarily all,
aspects of daily living which are considered normal for most of the society
(Cavan Local Authority, 2009). When
people suffer long term discrimination, they tend to have low self esteem, lack
confidence and voice (DFID 2009).
Voice
refers to the capacity of people to express their views. Voice can also be seen
as ability of individual or group to speak-up, express oneself, to participate
in the society. The channels and
mechanisms for expressing views and making voices heard can be informal and
formal (Gaventa, 2009). Citizens of any given state need effective ‘voice’ in order
to convey their views. Voice is an element of
women’s empowerment (Domingo et al,
(2015). Individual or group of individuals can express their voice in the
society through various ways such as organized protest, complaint, lobbying,
service delivery, participation in decision making and so on. (Goetz and Gaventa, 2001) Social exclusion of
women’s voices in any situation, activity or sphere of life therefore amounts
to lack of voice. This lack of voice functions as a critical factor in the
maintenance of gender inequality and poverty.
It also blocks women’s access to decision-making and agenda setting
processes and opportunities for leading these processes. This ultimately leads
to invisibility of women as public actors and contributes to a negation of
their rights to equal participation. Besides, it promotes a decision process
which is less likely to represent women’s interest than a mere
representative system and which therefore, posses neither the vision nor
the motivation to challenge and change
unequal gender relations in the society
(Hoare & Gell, 2009). Voice is important because it has intrinsic value; it
is good for people to have the freedom to express their beliefs and
preferences. It is also beneficial because it is an essential building block
for accountability; it is only by speaking up directly or through channels that
the poor including women will have the
chance to see their preferences, opinions and views reflect government priorities
and policies and to ensure that these are implemented. In addition, the
exercise of voice and the conversation that result from it plays an important
role in enabling communities to arrive collectively at the standard – the
values and norms of justice and morality.
Excluded
women, the poor and vulnerable or disadvantaged groups can obtain fair
representation only if they are present in elected assemblies in their
communities. Oxfam (2006) noted that the ability of women’s representatives to
participate in decisions affecting their lives not only puts them in a position
to contribute ideas but also provides them with the tools and options for
reshaping the course, direction and outcomes of specific programmes and
activities which will determine their future. Presence in leadership forum enables
an individual/group to have voice and this in turn makes it possible for
individual or group to be part of decision-making processes. The ability to
make effective choice and exercise control over one’s life is a critical
dimension of well-being. It is also important that women’s voices are heard at
the community and village levels, informal community spaces for developing
leaders, providing skills, experiences, relationships and networks for women to
become leaders themselves. It is a known fact that women are more likely to
work collectively, rather than individuals in pursuit of peace and voice.
Working together gives women a degree of protection and also amplifies their
voice.
Improved
access to decision-making in the community power structures and related
grassroots associations will provide women a chance to articulate their
peculiar needs at meetings of community leaders. Access to rural community power structures
and other grassroots organizations would enable them to challenge the
prevailing systems and processes that subordinate them to their male
counterparts as a whole (Oxfam, 2006). Women’s full integration in all facets
of the society, will definitely give them voice
Social inclusion is
a process by which efforts are made to ensure equal opportunities for all. The multi-dimensional
process aims at creating conditions which enable full and active participation
of every member of the society in all aspects of life, including civic, social, economic, and political
activities, as well as participation in decision making processes. Social inclusion may also be interpreted as the process
by which societies combat poverty and social exclusion. Social inclusion aims to empower poor and marginalized
people to take advantage of several opportunities available in the world to better
themselves. It ensures that people have a voice in decisions which affect their
lives and that they enjoy equal access to markets, services and political, social and physical spaces, including
all persons regardless of any dividing factors to the social fabric of life. There are various
types of inclusion; full, partial
and mainstreaming. It is a process that requires deliberate actions.
This
study on analysis of social exclusion of women’s voices in rural community
development focused on social exclusion of women from social systems in the
communities. In other words, the study x-rayed among others, the role of women
in rural community development, exclusion of women’s voice from rural community
administration, exclusion from decision-making processes in rural communities
in South-east, Nigeria.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
In
every society, women are regarded as the live-wire because of the roles they
play. Women and girls represent half of the world’s
population (United Nations 2020). They contribute in vital ways to
societal development generally. In most societies, women assume some key roles,
such as mother, producer, processors, home-manager, community organizer, socio-cultural
and political activists, (Nyong and Archibong 2019).
It would be only natural to see women equally represented in community
assemblies, boardrooms, governments, the workforce, etc (Ogunjemilua & Familugba
2015). But that is not what is happening. In many parts of the world, women are
raised in a masculine-orientated culture in which women’s opinions are second.
In
Africa, gender inequality reflects indigenous, pre-colonial, and European
influences. European expansion into Africa during the colonial period both
undermined sources of status and autonomy that women had and strengthened
elements of indigenous male dominance /patriarchy (Okafor and Akokuwebe 2015,
Makama 2013). Since independence, African male leaders have continued to add lamentations
to the patriarchal structures they inherited from their colonial masters.
Inequality in the public sphere often starts with discriminatory attitudes and
practices as well as unequal power relations between women and men. The unequal
division of labor within the households is still real in Nigerian rural areas.
This is due to unequal power relations. This limits women’s ability to find
time and develop the skills required for participating in decision making
forums outside the home, (DFID 2009).
Similarly,
non-formal networks and platforms of decision making at rural community level
reflect dominant male ethos which restricts women’s ability to take part on
equal footing with men in economic, political and social lives. Batas (2009),
cited in Nwachukwu (2018) asserted that community development is the process of
improving the quality of life and services of a place by the members, and also
through external assistance from the government or non-governmental
organizations (NGOs). This means that both men and women have serious roles to
play in rural community development. Women contribute both finance and
materials to develop their communities.
In
Nigeria most of these women who are expected to contribute to community
development are very poor. Onwuka, Nwadiubu and Isiwu (2019) observed that
women make up to about 60 percent of the poorest people in Nigeria. Large number
of Nigerian rural women are poor. Hoare and Gell (2009) highlighted that this
poverty is experienced not just as material deprivation but also as
marginalization, which means those living in poverty often have little or no
opportunities to influence the political, economic and social processes and
institutions which shape their lives and keep them trapped in a cycle of poverty.
The poor women’s experience of marginalization is effectively
doubled not only do they live in remote rural communities but they are
denied a voice within the homes
and communities in which they live, dominated as they are by men and male
interest. Women constitute the central pillar of rural development in
developing countries yet they are not visible in the mainstream of rural
development policies and programs, (Akpan 2015).This absence of voice is a
critical factor in reinforcing gender inequality and poverty, effectively
blocking women’s access to decision- making and agenda setting processes. It
also denies them the opportunities to lead these processes, and thus
contributes to women’s invisibility as both private and public actors as well
as constitutes a negation of their rights to equal participation. But it
further perpetuates a decision making process that is unlikely to reflect
women’s views and interests compared to a more representative and balanced
system. The above scenario could result into overall effect of unsustainable
socio-economic and political development outcomes as well as lack of social
stability.
Even
when women founded their own organizations as an alternative to overcoming
barriers to participation in formal politics and to forge the changes and get
the responses they want, these organizations are sidelined during
decision-making (Crisby, 2005). This results to stifling women’s voices. Beyond
this, in non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based
organizations which claim to represent the community, Rehn and Ellen (2003) asserted
that women are conspicuously not heard and their aspirations and perspectives
not incorporated in their agenda because they have been hijacked by more
powerful members of the communities (Hoare & Gell, 2009). Mehmoona (2005)
noted that women were excluded from paid labor force and their work in the home
was not valued. Development specialists ignore women because they are
not involved in political activities and in decision making. To participate in
decision making and exercise voice, women need to be represented in leadership
positions and decision-making bodies in the communities such as the community
power structure.
Different
studies have been carried out to assess the roles women play in community
development such as Assessment of Women’s Participation in Community
Leadership; Role of Rural Development (Kanu and Ugwu, 2016), Rural Women’s
Economic Contribution towards Community Development in Rural Communities (Abdullabi,
Ghani & Dalhat, 2015) Women in Community Development: Interrogating the
Role of Women August Meeting (Ohaegbuchi, 2014), Participation of Women in
Community Development in Nigeria (Mamah, 2011). Efforts have also been made in
studying marginalization of women such as Problems of Women in Community Development
(Ogbonnaya, 2012), Women’s Marginalization in Nigeria: The Way
Forward (Bako & Jawad, 2018).
Social Inclusion of Women and Agricultural Activities in Rural Communities of
Delta North Agricultural Zone of Delta State (Ofuoku, 2017), Effects of Social
Exclusion on Agricultural Activities and Rural Women in Ahoada Agricultural
Zone of Rivers state (Ifeanyi-Obi, Olotunji and Akpala, 2014).
Kanu
and Ugwu (2016) and Okafor and Akokuwebe (2015) found out that the level of
women participation in politics and leadership position is still low in
Nigeria. Mamah (2011) discovered that women are disadvantaged in political life
of the people due to poverty. He concluded that less involvement of women has
contributed in no small measure to the backwardness of the country despite the
enormous resources with which the country is endowed. Ohaegbuchi (2014) insisted
that the persistence marginalization against women has become a routine reality
especially in the South-East, Nigeria where there is wide gap in leadership
position between men and women. Ifeanyi-Obi, Olotunji and Akpala, (2014) found
out that women suffer many versions of social exclusion which impact negatively
on their general well-being. However, women’s levels of access to
decision-making opportunities in rural communities mirror those of other
sectors. Women play great roles in rural
community development render and they different services such as taking care of
children, the elderly, and the sick, provide unpaid labor for farming
activities, contribute greatly to family well-being, contribute both material
and financial resources to community development, yet are rarely included in
decision-making processes. Although these studies provided useful data on
women, none investigated social exclusion of women’s voices in rural community
development inSouth-east, Nigeria. The absence of this critical information
constrains decision-making and women’s full integration in rural community
development programs. It constrains decision on social inclusion of women in
rural community development agenda and it is to fill this gap that this study
was conducted.
1.3
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
The
study sought answers to the following research questions:
i.
What are the
socioeconomic characteristics of the women?
ii.
What are the economic
status of women in the communities?
iii.
Are the women excluded
from administrative and development activities in their communities?
iv.
Are the women excluded
from decision-making processes in the communities?
v.
What are the opinions of
the women regarding who takes decision for community priority projects?
vi.
Are the women ready to accept leadership positions
in their communities?
vii.
What are the contributions of women in rural
community development?
viii.
What are the socio-cultural barriers women
face in decision-making?
ix.
What were the roles of “August
meeting” in projecting women voices in the study area?
1.4
OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY
The
broad objective of the study was to analyze social exclusion of women’s voices
in rural community development in South east, Nigeria. The specific objectives
were to:
i. describe
the socio-economic characteristics of the women;
ii. ascertain women’s economic status in
the communities;
iii. examine the extent of women’s exclusion
from administrative and development activities in the communities;
iv. assess the extent of women’s exclusion
from decision-making processes in the communities;
v. determine women’s opinions regarding who takes decisions
for community priority projects;
vi. determine the readiness of women to accept
leadership positions in the communities;
vii. ascertain the contributions of women in rural
communities development;
viii. identify the socio-cultural barriers women
face in decision-making;
ix. ascertain the role of “August meeting”
in projecting the voice of women in the study area.
1.5 HYPOTHESES FOR THE STUDY
The
following null hypotheses were designed to guide this study:
H01:
There is no significant relationship between the women’s exclusion from
community administration and their economic status in the area.
H02: The women’s exclusion from participation
in community development programmes is not influenced by their selected
socio-economic characteristics in the area.
H03: There is no significant relationship
between the women’s exclusion from decision-making processes in the communities
and their economic status in the area.
H04: There is no significant relationship
between women’s exclusion from decision-making processes in the communities and
their selected economic characteristics in the area.
H05: There is no significant difference
in the women’s opinions regarding who takes decisions for priority projects across
the three states.
H06: There is no significant difference
in the women’s readiness to accept leadership positions in the communities
across the three states.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This
study on analysis of social exclusion of women’s voices in rural community
development was conducted because of its significance. It will contribute to
literature on social exclusion and gender. The study could also serve as a
source of reference materials for future research work on social exclusion of
women’s voices in rural community development.
It
will also be useful to social development workers and gender experts who may
use the result of the study to improve on interventions on social inclusion
programmes and bridge the gap in inequality of voices between men and women in
decision-making that affects them especially in the homes and communities in South-east
in particular and Nigeria in general.
Further,
the study will enhance women’s voice and access to decision-making processes
and leadership positions in the rural communities which will in turn foster
balanced agenda setting and inclusive community devoid of discriminatory
attitude that will ultimately lead to equal sharing of development outcomes.
The situation will entrench social justice and equity in the rural
communities. This in turn will entrench
a balanced decision making strategy that incorporates the views of women and
men that will benefit women and girls and also ensure sustainable rural
development.
The study tried to identify some obnoxious
social and cultural barriers which combine to subordinate women and reduce
their visibility in decision-making arenas and hence as public actors. This
will subsequently bring about changes in the attitudes and norms; expectations
regarding women in the communities.
Women will benefit through the emerging
transformations in the rural communities, as they will emerge as leaders, acquire skills and experiences and
integrated into relational life and networks for women to become public and
political leaders themselves. Policy and decision makers will also benefit as
they could use the findings to improve policies for social inclusion
intervention. Women will be given a prime place at all levels of power
structure and they will enjoy access, membership and representation at all
levels of governance. Government will also share in the benefit of the result
of the study through sustainable development and improved governance that
addresses gender issues in rural development. The study revealed the areas of
social exclusion of women thus enabling the government to advocate for gender
mainstreaming and include women in policy formulation and decision-making
areas. This will enable the government achieve its 5th Sustainable
Development Goal in the country.
1.7. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This
study focused on the analysis of the social exclusion of women’s voice in rural
community development in South-east, Nigeria. The study was delimited to three
states out of the five (5) states that make up the geopolitical zone. It was
also delimited to the use of questionnaire and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) as
instruments for data collection in the study area.
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
The
following terms defined in this section were used by the researcher in this
study.
Community: A locality group or an aggregation of
families habitually living together within a definite geographical location.
Community Development:
Any concerted action in a locality taken by agency and or the local people
themselves with the primary aim of bringing some benefit to the locality.
Rural: Rural
connotes a place with agricultural orientation; the houses are farm houses,
barns, sheds and other structures of similar purposes
Culture:
The total way of life of people which is learned, shared and transmitted from
one generation to another.
Decision:
this is a choice that you make about something after thinking about several
possibilities
Decision-Making:
This is the act or process of deciding something especially with a group of
people. This is the process of reducing the number of available alternative
course of action in a given situation.
Exclusion: Act
of not allowing someone or something to take part in an activity. It is also
deliberately not using or allowing someone to participate.
Social exclusion:
Social exclusion is a dynamic process that prevents full participation of
individual in the society in activities open to others in a given society.
Feminism:
women advocacy of social equality for the sexes.
Institution:
The standard or conventional pattern in which similar groups behave in a given
society. It is established forms or organized system of social relationships
which embodies certain norms and procedures and meets certain needs of the
society.
Power:
control over others. The ability to have one’s way in spite of opposition by
others.
Women: Adult female human being. It means female
members of a workforce; team etc. The singular is woman and is used for female
regardless of age.
Men:
Plural of man. Man is an adult male human being.
Voice:
refers both to the act of making known one’s preferences, demands, views and
interest and to the capabilities this requires. Those capabilities include confidence
and belief in the worth of one’s opinion and the legitimacy of expressing them.
Barriers:
This refers to a material object or set of objects that separate, demarcates or
serve as barricade. Factors that tend to
impede or restrict free movement, mingling or association of an individual or
group of people.
Administration: This refers to act or process of
administering. It means performance of executive duties. It is a body of
persons who administers/excises authority.
Participation:
This is the act of participating. This is the act of taking part in something.
It means the state of being related to a larger whole. It refers to different
mechanisms for the public to express opinion and ideally exert influence
regarding political, economic, management or other social decisions.
Gender inequality:
refer to the difference between women and men in terms of social, political and
economic or other attainments or attitudes or the problem seen to occur in
respects to such difference.
Leadership:
Leadership is the activity of influencing people to cooperate towards some
goals which they come to find desirable. It refers to an effort to direct the behavior
of others towards a particular goal.
Power Structure:
It is an overall system of influence between any individual and every other
individual within any selected group of people. It explains the way in which power or authority is distributed
between people within groups such as government, institution, organization,
community or society.
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