ABSTRACT
In this study, different bottled water brands in Michael Okpara University of Agriculture were compared and analysed. The standard water testing methods were used to access the physicochemical and microbiological quality of these samples (Mr V Table Water, CWAY Table Water, Eva Table Water and Pax Table Water). The four water samples do not conform to the World Health Organization acceptable standards of zero bacteria for drinking water as they contain significant amount of bacteria ranging from 3.5×10¹CFU/ml to 4.45×101CFU/ml. However, Eva water had the lowest Total Bacteria Count of 3.5 ×101. The four samples showed zero presence of Fungal and Coliform micro-organisms which are within the WHO standard for zero condition for portable water. The physicochemical parameters such as; Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Hardness, Iron (Fe), Chloride (Cl), Nitrate (N), Fluoride (F) and Copper (Cu) were all below WHO acceptable limitsfor all water samples tested except for the alkalinitythat ranged from 140.35 mg/l to 145.23 mg/l and phosphorous (0.79-0.94) which were found to be above the permissible limit of 50mg/l and zero respectively as recommended by the World Health Organization. Public awareness should also be created that bottled water may still be impure, despite appearing attractive and convenient.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of contents v
List of tables viii
List of plates ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study 1
1.2 Statement of problem 2
1.3 Justification 2
1.4 Objectives of the study 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Description of Water 4
2.2 Fresh water shortage 4
2.3 United nations impact on water quality 5
2.4 Water Quality 7
2.5 Physicochemical quality of water 10
2.5.1 Alkalinity 11
2.5.2 Arsenic 11
2.5.3 Cadmium 11
2.5.4 Chloride 12
2.5.5 Color 12
2.5.6 Lead 12
2.5.7 Nitrate 13
2.5.8 pH 14
2.5.9 Total Hardness 14
2.5.10 Turbidity 14
2.5.11 Zinc 15
2.5.12 Total alkalinity 15
2.6 The microbiological quality of water 17
2.6.1 Heterotrophic plate counts 19
2.6.2 Total coliform bacteria 19
2.6.3 Faecal coliform bacteria 20
2.6.4 Escherichia coli bacteria 21
2.6.5 Faecal enterococci bacteria 22
2.6.6 Clostridium perfringens bacteria 22
2.6.7 Bacteriophages 23
2.6.7.1 Somatic bacteriophages 24
2.6.7.2 Bacteroides fragilis HSP40 bacteriophages 24
2.6.7.3 Male specific F-RNA bacteriophages 25
2.7 Bottled water 27
2.7.1 Environmental Effects of Bottled Water 28
2.8 Waterborne Diseases 28
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Sources of raw materials 32
3.2 Sample collection 32
3.3 Methods of analysis 32
3.4 Physicochemical analysis 32
3.4.1 pH 32
3.4.2 Electrical Conductivity 33
3.4.3 Chloride 33
3.4.4 Total Hardness 33
3.4.5 Nitrate-N 34
3.5 Microbiological Analysis 34
3.6 Statistical Analysis 34
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Microbiological analysis of the water samples 36
4.2: Physical analysis of the water samples 38
4.3 Chemical analysis of the water samples 41
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 45
5.2 Recommendations 45
REFERENCES 46
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Guidelines of Drinking Water Quality 9
Table 2.2: Maximum permissible limits of drinking water quality 16
Table 2.3: Microbiological requirements for domestic water in Nigeria 26
Table 2.4: Waterborne pathogens and their associated diseases 30
Table 4.1: Results for Microbiological analysis of the water samples 37
Table 4.2: Results for the Physical analysis of the water samples 39
Table 4.3: Result for the chemical analysis of the water samples 43
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1: Mr. V Table Water 43
Plate 4. 2: CWAY Table Water 43
Plate 4.3: Eva Table Water 43
Plate 4.4: Pax Table Water 43
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
It has been established that water with good quality produces healthier humans than one with poor quality (Trivedi et al., 2009). Water is the medium for all biochemical reactions in man. It houses the largest number of living organisms when compared with other habitats and comply with certain physical,chemical and microbiological standards (Amajor et al., 2012). The ability to control the quality of water is based on routine tests, the results of which are compared with established standards. Chemical and microbial analyses can thus give an idea of the possibility of water being polluted, the extent of its pollution and the possibility of it containing pathogenic microorganisms (APHA, 2005). Water quality is essentially determined by its physical, chemical as well as microbiological characteristics (Sinha et al., 2010). Such water should be palatable, oxygenated, colorless, odorless and free from harmful organisms and salts of heavy metals. However, the quality of water, both for drinking and other uses deteriorates due to inadequacy of treatment plants, direct discharge of untreated sewage into rivers and stream. In addition to inefficient management of piped water distribution system (Reza and Singh, 2010). This therefore has serious health implications for the users. Water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever amoebic dysentery etc. will affect at least 3.4 million people every year. Most cases of cholera and abdominal infections being reported in clinics recently were traceable to the consumption of harmful particles and microorganisms in water and beverages (Agha, 2006).
Bottled water is a term referring to water that is presumed, packaged and sold in containers or simply bottles, which is generally regarded as safe for usage by people (Singha et al., 2010). The public perception and probably the reality is that bottled water is of high quality. This belief is encouraged by publicly reported problem of municipal tap water as well as the public perception of purity driven by advertisements and packaging labels featuring pristine glaciers and crystal-clear mountain springs (Trivedi et al., 2009). However, many studies have shown that these beliefs need not always be true. Bottled water production companies are one of the fastest growing industrial sectors in this part of the world. There are more than 100 bottling plants in Nigeria recently.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
High rate of consumption of water has resulted in the establishment of different water bottling companies with less interest in the quality of the water bottled. Water quality has a direct impact on public health.
More than 80% of deaths is due to waterborne diseases. However, it is not possible to test drinking water samples for every water borne pathogens and detection techniques are often expensive and time consuming, hence the use of indicator organisms to test for potential contamination by pathogens.
With the increasing demand and insufficient supply, it seems that in the near future, the urban dwellers would not have an option other than using bottled water. Thus, its high time to check the quality and monitor the bottled water industry. However, very few studies have been carried out to assess their quality.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Safe drinking water is fundamental to human lives. Drinking water that Is not properly treated can create condition that can cause illness or create risk of contamination. Due to the health challenges such as gastrointestinal disorders/illness, reproductive problems etc, people usually encounter as a result of consumption of dirty water, it is wise to review the standard of bottled water samples that are sold in MOUAU. This study investigated the physicochemical and microbial quality of three bottled water samples vended at computer village M.O.U.A.U, Umudike.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the study was to evaluate the physicochemical and microbial load of three bottled water samples sold at Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike. The specific objectives were to:
i. collect water samples from Computer village in MOUAU.
ii. determine the physicochemical properties of the water samples.
iii. ascertain the microbial load of the water sample.
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