PRODUCTIVITY, GROWTH PATTERN AND PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS VAR FLORIDA (EGER) FRUITBODIES, CULTIVATED ON ANDROPOGON GAYANUS SUSBSTRATE SUPPLEMENTED WITH GMELINA ARBOREA BARK.

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ABSTRACT

The study was aimed at determining the productivity, growth pattern and proximate compositions of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated on Andropogon gayanus (AND) supplemented with Gmelina arborea (GML). Data obtained from these were subjected to ANOVA in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) and replicated three (3) times for the various substrate supplementations. AND 100%, AND 80% + GML 20%, AND 70% + GML 30%, AND 60% + 40%, AND 50% + GML 50%. There was no significant differences (P<0.05) in the various analysis carried out except in the result of Proximate analysis where the values showed significant difference at P>0.05. The productivity was determined on the basis of the weight, stipe length and pileus diameter. The fruit-bodies had the highest (3.62cm) weight at the AND 100% level and the least (2.62cm) at AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation. The AND 100% had the highest (4.46cm) value for the stipe length and the least (3.18cm) at the AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation. The AND 60% + GML 40% supplementation had the highest (4.28cm) pileus diameter and the AND 100% had the least (2.95cm). The growth pattern had the highest (141g) yield at AND 50% + GML 50% and a Biological Efficiency (B.E) of 53.5% while the least (55g) was obtained at AND 60% + GML 40% supplementation and B.E of 32.0%. The values of the proximate compositions of the fruit-bodies of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated on A. gayanus supplemented with G. arborea varied. The values ranged from 33.60% of protein in AND 100% to 28.00% in AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation, with the fat content increasing from 2.40%% at AND 100% to 3.20% at AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation as the supplementation level increased. The crude fibre contents of the fruit-bodies decreased from 16.00% at AND 100% to 12.10% at AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation. The ash contents of the fruit-bodies decreased from 9.80% at AND100% to 7.50% at AND 50% + GML 50%. The moisture contents of the fruit-bodies varied with an irregular differences amongst them with the AND 100% having the highest (8.40%) moisture value and the least (7.45%) from AND 50% + GML 50%. The carbohydrate contents of the fruit-bodies also increased supplementation level increased. The AND 50% + GML 50% had the highest (41.75%) carbohydrate value and AND100% had the least (29.80%).






TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page                                                                                                                                i

Declaration                                                                                                                             ii

Certification                                                                                                                           iii

Dedication                                                                                                                              iv

Acknowledgement                                                                                                                  v

Table of content                                                                                                                      vi

List of tables                                                                                                                           vii

Abstract                                                                                                                                  viii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0       INTRODUCTION                                                                                                    1

1.1.1    Economic importance                                                                                                 3

1.1.2    Mushrooms as a source of food                                                                                  4

1.1.3    Medicinal importance                                                                                                 7

1.1.4    World production of mushroom                                                                                 8

1.1.5    Overview of Pleurotus mushroom                                                                             10

1.1.6    Overview of Pleurotus ostreatus                                                                                12

1.1.7    Objective of the study                                                                                                 14

1.1.8    Justification                                                                                                                14

CHAPTER TWO

2.0       LITERATURE REVIEW                                                                                        16

CHAPTER THREE

3.0       MATERIALS AND METHOD                                                                               18

3.1       CULTIVATION PROCESS                                                                                    18

3.1.1    Source of the stock spawn and substrate for cultivation                                            18

3.1.2    Preparation of the substrates for inoculation of the spawn                                        18

3.1.3    Spawn running                                                                                                            19

3.1.4 Fruiting and Harvesting                                                                                                 19

3.1.5    Measurement parameters                                                                                           20

3.2       PROXIMATE ANALYSIS                                                                                      20

3.2.1    Moisture content and determination                                                                           20

3.2.2    Protein content                                                                                                            21

3.2.3    Determination of fats and oil                                                                                      21

3.2.4    Crude fibre content                                                                                                     22

3.2.5    Ash content                                                                                                                 23

3.3       STATISTICAL ANALYSIS                                                                                    23

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0       RESULT                                                                                                                    24

CHATER FIVE

5.0       DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION AND                                                            29

5.1       Discussion                                                                                                                   29

5.2       Conclusion                                                                                                                  32

REFERENCES

APPENDIX                                                                                                                             35

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:       effect of substrate and substrate supplementation on the fresh fruitbody weight of Pleurotus ostreatus.

Table2:        effect of substrate and substrate supplentation on the pileus diameter of Pleurotus ostreatus.             

Table 3:       effect of substrate and substrate supplemention on the stipen length of fruitbody of Pleurotus ostreatus.

Table 4:       Yield and Biological Efficiency of Pleurotus ostreatus on substrate and substrate supplemention.

Table 5:       Effect of substrate and substrate supplementation on the proximate composition of Pleurotus ostreatus.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

A mushroom is defined as a macro-fungus with a distinctive fruiting-body which can be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen with the naked eyes and to be picked by hand (Chang and Miles, 1992). In a narrow sense, the word mushroom also refers to the fruiting body members of the Basidomycetes and Ascomycetes. Mushrooms used to be classified into the kingdom Plantae, but now they belong to the kingdom Fungi due to unique fungal characteristics which draw a clear line from animals or plants. Unlike green plants, mushrooms are heterotrophs. Not having chlorophyll, they cannot generate nutrients by photosynthesis, but take nutrients from other sources. Most mushroom species are under the Basidomycota and Ascomycota, the two phyla under the kingdom Fungi.

Mushroom has been valued and treated throughout the world as a special kind of food and medicine for thousands of years (Lindquist, et al., 2005, Tribe, et al; 1973). Man’s attention is usually drawn to mushroom by the unusual shape of their fruit-bodies which suddenly appear in striking numbers after rain field and woodlands (Onuoha, 2007). They are low calorie food with little fat and are highly suitable for obese persons with no starch and very low sugars; they can serve as medicinal food for diabetic patient (Bano, 1976). Pleurotus tuber-regium (sing) is used to treat heart problem in the eastern part of Nigeria especially among the Igbos and Edos. It is also used in the treatment of asthma, cough and obesity (Isikhuemhen, et al., 2000).

Despite their nutritional values, mushroom cultivation is not widespread. Many mushrooms are considered to be healthy food because they contain large amount of proteins needed by the rural poor especially during the rains. Also, because of their low fat content, they contain high fibre that enhances food digestion.

Many types of mushroom both edible and non-edible exist. The edible mushrooms are widely used as human food (Chang, 1980). The edible mushrooms are rich in essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats, fibres and various amino acids (Okwulehie and Odunze, 2004). Most people consume mushroom mostly because of its flavor, meaty taste and medicinal value (Moore and Chiu, 2001). It must however be emphasized that some mushrooms are poisonous (non edible mushrooms) and may claim lives within few hours after consumption (Philips, 1985). Considering mushroom growth requirement, they grow well on a wide range of lignocellulosic wastes as substrates (Okhuoya and Okogbo, 1990; Kadiri, 1991; Okwulehie and Okwujiaku, 2008). It has been established that they grow and fruit on various agricultural wastes (Monicaio et al., 2005). Furthermore, some of these mushrooms have been cultivated in the laboratory (kadiri, 1994, Fasidi, 1995). These substrates could be used in commercial production of mushroom as food (Fasidi, 1995). In this part of the world, nutritive foods are scarce and when available they are usually very costly. However, lignocellulosic wastes are abundantly available and labor is inexpensive.

1.1.1    Economic Importance

Mushrooms have long been favored by Asian people as food stuff in soup. Nowadays mushrooms are found in markets throughout America, Europe, Asia as well as Africa. Popularity of mushrooms is ever increasing throughout every part of the world because of its exotic flavor and their culinary properties whether eaten alone or in a combination with other foods. Mushroom is used as delicious item for our food menu containing both nutritive and medicinal value (Agrahar-Nurugkar, et al., 2005; Cheung and Cheung, 2005). Shitake contains almost all the essential amino acids, with lysine arginine being particularly abundant (Oliu and Bau, 1980) and methionine and phenylalanine less abundant (Lasota and Sylvestrzak, 1989).

The Chinese, Korean, European and Japanese also use mushrooms extensively in cooking in many cusines. Mushrooms are known as the ‘meat’ of the vegetable world (Haas and James, 2009).

Also mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes (Mussak and Bechtold, 2009).  Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi). Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water) (Kushreshtha et al., 2004).

1.1.2    Mushrooms as a Source of Food 

Man has been hunting for the wild mushrooms since antiquity (Cooke, 1977). Thousands of years ago, fructifications of higher fungi have been used as a source of food (Mattila et al., 2001) due to their chemical composition which is attractive from the nutrition point of view. During the early days of civilization, mushrooms were consumed mainly for their palatability and unique flavors (Rai, 1994, 1997). Present use of mushrooms is totally different from traditional because, lot of research has been done on the chemical composition of mushrooms, which revealed that mushrooms can be used as a diet to combat diseases. Lintzel (1941, 1943) recommended that 100 to 200 g of mushrooms (dry weight) is required to maintain an optimal nutritional balance in a man weighing 70 kg.

Bano et al. (1963) determined the nutritive value of Pleurotus flabellatus as 0.974% ash, 1.084% crude fibre, 0.105% fat, 90.95% moisture, 0.14% non-protein nitrogen and 2.75% protein. Bano (1976) suggested that food value of mushrooms lies between meat and vegetables. Crisan and Sands (1978) observed that mushrooms in general contain 90% water and 10% dry matter. More so, the protein content varies between 27 and 48%. Carbohydrates are less than 60% and lipids are between 2 to 8%.  Gruen and Wong, (1982) indicated that edible mushrooms were highly nutritional and compared favorably with meat, egg and milk food sources. Of several thousand mushroom species known worldwide, only around 2000 are considered edible, of which about 20 are cultivated commercially with only 4 to 5 under industrial production (Chang, 1990). There is also a significant difference in the nutrient contents of pileus verses stalks (Latifah et al., 1996; Zakia et al., 1993).  

The carbohydrate content of mushrooms represents the bulk of fruiting bodies accounting for 50 to 65% on dry weight basis. Free sugars amounts to about 11%. Florezak et al. (2004) reported that Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.: Fr.) Fr. contain 24% of carbohydrate on dry weight basis. The mannitol, also called as mushroom sugar constitutes about 80% of the total free sugars, hence it is dominant (Tseng and Mau, 1999; Wannet et al., 2000). Protein is an important constituent of dry matter of mushrooms (Aletor, 1995; Alofe et al., 1995; Fasidi and Kadiri, 1990; Florczak and Lasota, 1995; Zrodlowski, 1995; Chang and Buswell, 1996). Protein content of mushrooms depends on the composition of the substratum, size of pileus, harvest time and species of mushrooms (Bano and Rajarathnam, 1982). Protein content of the mushrooms has also been reported to vary from flush to flush (Crisan and Sands, 1978). Verma et al. (1987) reported that mushrooms are very useful for vegetarian because they contain some essential amino acids which are found in animal proteins.

 In mushrooms, the fat content is very low as compared to carbohydrates and proteins. The fats present in mushroom fruiting bodies are dominated by unsaturated fatty acids. Singer (1961) determined the fat content of some mushrooms as 2.04% in Suillus granulatus, 3.66% in Suillus luteus and 2.32% in A. campestris.  Hugaes (1962) observed that mushrooms are rich in linolenic acid which is an essential fatty acid. Ogundana and Fagade (1981) indicated that mushrooms have 4.481% fats on dry weight basis. Mushrooms are considered good source of fats and minerals (Jiskani, 2001). Yilmaz et al. (2006) and Pedneault et al. (2006) reported that fat fraction in mushrooms is mainly composed of unsaturated fatty acids. 

Mushrooms are one of the best sources of vitamins especially Vitamin B (Breene, 1990; Mattila et al., 1994; Zrodlowski, 1995; Chang and Buswell, 1996; Mattila et al., 2000). Mushrooms also contain vitamin C in small amounts (Sapers et al., 1999; Mattila et al., 2001) which are poor in vitamins A, D, and E (Anderson and Fellers, 1942).  

The fruiting bodies of mushrooms are characterized by a high level of well assimilated mineral elements. Major mineral constituents in mushrooms are K, P, Na, Ca, Mg and elements like Cu, Zn, Fe, Mo, Cd  form   minor constituents (Bano and Rajarathanum, 1982; Bano et al., 1981; Chang, 1982). K, P, Na and Mg constitute about 56 to 70% of the total ash content of the mushrooms (Li and Chang, 1982) while potassium alone forms 45% of the total ash. The mineral proportions vary according to the species, age and the diameter of the fruiting body. It also depends upon the type of the substratum (Demirbas, 2001).

1.1.3    Medicinal Importance      

Medical mycology is as old as traditional uses of mushrooms. They have been used in medicine since the Neolithic and Paleolithic eras (Samorini, 2001). Although mushrooms as medicine have been used in China since 100 A.D. (Gunde, 1999), but it was only in 1960 that scientists investigated the basic active principles of mushrooms which are health promoting. Mushrooms have been used in health care for treating simple and age old common diseases like skin diseases to present day complex and pandemic disease like diabetics. They are reputed to possess anti-allergic, anti-cholesterol, anti-tumor and anti-cancer properties (Jiskani, 2001). Aqueous extracts from Pleurotus sajor-caju proves good in renal failure (Tam et al., 1986). Pharmaceutical substances with potent and unique health enhancing properties have been isolated from mushrooms (Wasser and Weis, 1999).

Fresh mushrooms are known to contain both soluble and insoluble fibres; the soluble fibre is mainly beta-glucans polysaccharides and chitosans which are components of the cell walls (Sadler, 2003). Soluble fibre present in mushrooms prevents and manages cardiovascular diseases (Chandalia et al., 2000). Wasser (2005) reported that mushroom health supplements are marketed in the form of powders, capsules or tablets made of dried fruiting bodies, extracts of mycelium with substrate, biomass or extract from liquid fermentation. Typical example is Ganodoma product.

1.1.4    World Production of Mushroom

Diversification of the mushroom industry, in terms of number and quantity of species cultivated, has accelerated worldwide during the 1980s and 1990s. Twenty years ago, 70% of the world's mushroom supply was Agaricus bisporus, but by the mid-1990s, this had fallen to only 37% (Royse, 1997). Total mushroom production worldwide has increased more than 18-fold in the last 32 years, from about 350,000 metric tons in 1965 to about 6,160,800 metric tons in 1997. The bulk of this increase has occurred during the last 15 years. A considerable shift has occurred in the composite of genera that constitute the mushroom supply.  During the 1979 production year, the button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, accounted for over 70 per cent of the world’s supply. By 1997, only 32 per cent of world production was A. bisporus. The People’s Republic of China is the major producer of edible mushrooms, producing about 14 million tons in 2006.

Flammulina ranks at fourth place in the category of edible mushrooms for production and consumption. During 1990, its production was estimated to be approximately 143,000 tons, which increased to 230,000 tons in 1994, showing a remarkable jump of 61% (Chang 1996).Worldwide 1986 production of F. velutipes (enokitake) has increased from about 100,000 tonnes in 1986 to about 187,000 t in 1991 (87% increase). 

Worldwide production of F. velutipes (enokitake has increased from about 143,000 metric tons in 1990 to about 285,000t in 1997 (a 2-fold increase), (Chang, 1999). Japan is the main producer of winter mushroom (Furukawa, 1987). In 1986, Japan produced 74,387tonnes; by 1991, production had risen to 95,123 tones and, by 1997, Japan produced 174,100 tones -an increase of about 45% in six years. From these data, it is evident that other countries are enjoying a faster growth rate, in terms of total production. In the United States, for example, winter mushroom production has increased at an estimated rate of 25% or more per year for the last four years.

Lee and Park (1994) investigated the profitability of bottle mushroom cultivation in the Korea Republic and suggested that for a production level of 2000 bottles per day, it requires a total expenditure of worth 5 million and obtains an annual net income of worth 110 million. For a production level of 1000 bottles per day, Pleurotus ostreatus requires a total expenditure of worth 300 million and provides an annual net income of worth 30 million. 

1.1.5    OVERVIEW OF PLEUROTUS MUSHROOMS

Pleurotus species belongs to phylum Basidiomycota that produce oyster shaped mushrooms (basidiocarps) and accordingly they have been called as oyster mushroom. Oyster mushroom enjoys worldwide distribution from temperate to tropical regions growing saprophytically at a temperature range of 12-32°C (Zadrazil, 1978). They may be white to variously colored, stalked or sessile, above or underground and even epiphytic but rarely parasitic comprising of about 40 species. Pleurotus species grows on various types of lignocellulosic un-composted agro- wastes and produce Oyster mushroom rich in high value proteins, vitamins and minerals; Oyster mushroom contains very lower amount of carbohydrates, sugars and no or very lesser amount of cholesterol  (Wasser and Weis, 1999). Extensive work on medicinal attributes of Pleurotus was done by Wang, Li and their colleagues in the first decade of the new millennium (Wang and Ng 2001, Wang and Ng 2004, Li et al., 2008). Later Gregori et al, (2007) updated and reviewed the research activities in the last two decades not only for its nutritional and medicinal values of Pleurotus species. Recently Khan and Tania (2012) have given a comprehensive account of nutritional with some medicinal aspects of Pleurotus species. The present review gives an updated comprehensive account of medicinal properties of Pleurotus species to help the researchers in their crusade to explore more untapped metabolites from this mushroom fungus that can be used as new life-saving drugs.

Oyster mushrooms are also considered as functional foods because they elicit their positive effect on human being in several ways (Sadler and Saltmarsh, 1998). Functional food comprises products of microbial, plants and animals origin containing physiologically active compounds beneficial for human health and reducing the risk of chronic diseases. It includes dietary supplements, nutriceuticals, medicinal foods, vita foods, pharma foods, phytochemicals, mycochemicals and so on (Hasler 1996).

Fruiting bodies as well as active mycelia of Pleurotus also possesses a number of therapeutic properties  like anti-inflammatory, immune-stimulatory and immune-modulatory (Asfors and Ley 1993), anticancer activity (Wasser, 2002), ribonuclease activity (Wang and Ng 2000) and many more activities detailed later. Though Oyster mushroom is third important mushroom of culinary value, there has been an upsurge in Pleurotus mushroom research activities in the last two decades not only for its  nutritive and medicinal values but many other biopotentialities of Pleurotus species such recycling of agricultural residues (Rajarathanam et al., 1996, Singh et al., 2010). bioconversion of lignocellulosic wastes (Sharma et al., 1996, Salmones et al., 2005), production or improved animal feed [37], bioremediation and degradation of xenobiotics  (Morgan and Watkinson 1991, Buswell 2001), industrial dye degradation (Shin et al., Epindola et al., 2007), enzyme production (Naraian et al., 2010, Daba et al., 2011) etc.

1.1.6    Overview of Pleurotus ostreatus

Pleurotus ostreatus, the oyster mushroom is a common edible mushroom. It was cultivated in Germany as a subsistence measure during World War 1 (Eger et al., 1976) and is now grown commercially around the world for food. It is related the similarly cultivated king oyster mushroom.

Oyster mushrooms can also be used industrially for mycoremediation purposes. The oyster mushroom is one of the more commonly sought wild mushrooms, though it can also be cultivated on straw and other media. It has the bittersweet aroma of benzaldehyde (which is also characteristic of bitter almonds) (Beltran-Garcia et al., 1997).

Both the Latin and common names refer to the shape of the fruiting-body. The Latin Pleurotus (sideways) refer to the sideways growth of the stem with respect to the cap, while the Latin ostreatus (and the English common name, Oyster) refers to the shape of the cap which resemble the bivalve of the same name. Many also believe that the name is fitting due to a flavor resemblance to oysters. The name oyster is also applied to other Pleurotus species, so P.ostreatus is sometimes referred to as the Tree oyster mushroom (Stamets, 2000) or the Grey oyster mushroom (Hall, 2010) to differentiate it from other species in the genus.

The oyster mushroom is widespread in many temperate and subtropical forests throughout the world, although it is absent from the Pacific Northwest of North America, being replaced by P. pulmonarius and P. populinus (Trudell, 2009). It is a saprotroph that act as a primary decomposer of woods, especially deciduous trees, and beech trees in particular (Philips, 2006).

The oyster mushroom is frequently used in Japanese, Korea and Chinese cookery as a delicacy. It is frequently served on its own, in soups, stuffed, or dry in stir-fry recipes with soy sauce. Oyster mushrooms are sometimes made into a sauce, used in Asian cooking, which is similar to oyster sauce. Oyster mushrooms are also used in the Czech and Slovak contemporary cuisine in soups and stews as a replacement for meat (Slovak, 2015).

Researchers in Mexico have shown that oyster mushroom can break down disposable diapers (Wall, 2011), one preliminary study showed that consumption of oyster mushroom extracts lowered cholesterol levels, an effect linked to their content of beta-glucans (Rop et al., 2009).

1.1.7      Objective of the Study

i)               To assess the supplementation of Andropogon gayanus with Gmelina arborea for the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus.

ii)             To determine the growth pattern of the mushroom cultivated on Andropogon gayanus supplemented with Gmelina arborea.

iii)           To evaluate the proximate composition of the mushroom cultivated on Andropogon gayanus supplemented with Gmelina arborea.

1.1.8    Justification

It is obvious that the importance of mushroom is enormous. As a matter of fact, mushroom is consumed on daily basis as food sources and it is regarded as health additive to any diet because of its high concentration of protein and also used in treatment of cardiovascular disorders, (Guillamon et al., 2010). Due to the increased recognition of its nutritional and medicinal values, coupled with the realization of income generating potential of the fungi through trade, most developed countries especially china and India, mushroom has become an item of great values. These countries have generated lots of income from mushroom production and their marketing within and outside their religion (Qi and Hui, 2010).

Considering the enormous potentials of mushrooms, more works and researchers are required for its cultivation so as to know substrates (agricultural wastes) that support the growth and yields of mushrooms. Furthermore, since the price of fish, meat and other protein sources are on constant increase, there is a need to embark on researches that would increase the commercial production of mushroom as well as exportation to neighboring countries in other to generate income.

 

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