ABSTRACT
The study was aimed at determining the productivity, growth pattern and proximate compositions of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated on Andropogon gayanus (AND) supplemented with Gmelina arborea (GML). Data obtained from these were subjected to ANOVA in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) and replicated three (3) times for the various substrate supplementations. AND 100%, AND 80% + GML 20%, AND 70% + GML 30%, AND 60% + 40%, AND 50% + GML 50%. There was no significant differences’ (P<0.05) in the various analysis carried out except in the result of Proximate analysis where the values showed significant difference at P>0.05. The productivity was determined on the basis of the weight, stipe length and pileus diameter. The fruit-bodies had the highest (3.62cm) weight at the AND 100% level and the least (2.62cm) at AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation. The AND 100% had the highest (4.46cm) value for the stipe length and the least (3.18cm) at the AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation. The AND 60% + GML 40% supplementation had the highest (4.28cm) pileus diameter and the AND 100% had the least (2.95cm). The growth pattern had the highest (141g) yield at AND 50% + GML 50% and a Biological Efficiency (B.E) of 53.5% while the least (55g) was obtained at AND 60% + GML 40% supplementation and B.E of 32.0%. The values of the proximate compositions of the fruit-bodies of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated on A. gayanus supplemented with G. arborea varied. The values ranged from 33.60% of protein in AND 100% to 28.00% in AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation, with the fat content increasing from 2.40%% at AND 100% to 3.20% at AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation as the supplementation level increased. The crude fibre contents of the fruit-bodies decreased from 16.00% at AND 100% to 12.10% at AND 50% + GML 50% supplementation. The ash contents of the fruit-bodies decreased from 9.80% at AND100% to 7.50% at AND 50% + GML 50%. The moisture contents of the fruit-bodies varied with an irregular differences amongst them with the AND 100% having the highest (8.40%) moisture value and the least (7.45%) from AND 50% + GML 50%. The carbohydrate contents of the fruit-bodies also increased supplementation level increased. The AND 50% + GML 50% had the highest (41.75%) carbohydrate value and AND100% had the least (29.80%).
TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of content vi
List of tables vii
Abstract viii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1.1 Economic importance 3
1.1.2 Mushrooms as a
source of food 4
1.1.3 Medicinal importance 7
1.1.4 World production of
mushroom 8
1.1.5 Overview of Pleurotus mushroom 10
1.1.6 Overview of Pleurotus ostreatus 12
1.1.7 Objective of the
study 14
1.1.8 Justification 14
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 16
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD 18
3.1 CULTIVATION PROCESS 18
3.1.1 Source of the stock
spawn and substrate for cultivation 18
3.1.2 Preparation of the
substrates for inoculation of the spawn 18
3.1.3 Spawn running 19
3.1.4 Fruiting and Harvesting 19
3.1.5 Measurement
parameters 20
3.2 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS 20
3.2.1 Moisture content and
determination 20
3.2.2 Protein content 21
3.2.3 Determination of
fats and oil 21
3.2.4 Crude fibre content 22
3.2.5 Ash content 23
3.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 23
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT 24
CHATER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION AND 29
5.1 Discussion 29
5.2 Conclusion 32
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 35
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1: effect of substrate and substrate
supplementation on the fresh fruitbody weight of Pleurotus ostreatus.
Table2: effect of substrate and substrate
supplentation on the pileus diameter of Pleurotus
ostreatus.
Table
3: effect of substrate and substrate
supplemention on the stipen length of fruitbody of Pleurotus ostreatus.
Table
4: Yield and Biological Efficiency
of Pleurotus ostreatus on substrate
and substrate supplemention.
Table
5: Effect of substrate and substrate
supplementation on the proximate composition of Pleurotus ostreatus.
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
A
mushroom is defined as a macro-fungus with a distinctive fruiting-body which
can be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen with the naked
eyes and to be picked by hand (Chang and Miles, 1992). In a narrow sense, the
word mushroom also refers to the fruiting body members of the Basidomycetes and
Ascomycetes. Mushrooms used to be classified into the kingdom Plantae, but now
they belong to the kingdom Fungi due to unique fungal characteristics which
draw a clear line from animals or plants. Unlike green plants, mushrooms are
heterotrophs. Not having chlorophyll, they cannot generate nutrients by
photosynthesis, but take nutrients from other sources. Most mushroom species
are under the Basidomycota and Ascomycota, the two phyla under the kingdom
Fungi.
Mushroom
has been valued and treated throughout the world as a special kind of food and
medicine for thousands of years (Lindquist, et
al., 2005, Tribe, et al; 1973). Man’s attention is usually drawn to
mushroom by the unusual shape of their fruit-bodies which suddenly appear in
striking numbers after rain field and woodlands (Onuoha, 2007). They are low
calorie food with little fat and are highly suitable for obese persons with no
starch and very low sugars; they can serve as medicinal food for diabetic
patient (Bano, 1976). Pleurotus tuber-regium
(sing) is used to treat heart problem in the eastern part of Nigeria especially
among the Igbos and Edos. It is also used in the treatment of asthma, cough and
obesity (Isikhuemhen, et al., 2000).
Despite
their nutritional values, mushroom cultivation is not widespread. Many
mushrooms are considered to be healthy food because they contain large amount
of proteins needed by the rural poor especially during the rains. Also, because
of their low fat content, they contain high fibre that enhances food digestion.
Many
types of mushroom both edible and non-edible exist. The edible mushrooms are
widely used as human food (Chang, 1980). The edible mushrooms are rich in
essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats,
fibres and various amino acids (Okwulehie and Odunze, 2004). Most people
consume mushroom mostly because of its flavor, meaty taste and medicinal value
(Moore and Chiu, 2001). It must however be emphasized that some mushrooms are
poisonous (non edible mushrooms) and may claim lives within few hours after
consumption (Philips, 1985). Considering mushroom growth requirement, they grow
well on a wide range of lignocellulosic wastes as substrates (Okhuoya and Okogbo,
1990; Kadiri, 1991; Okwulehie and Okwujiaku, 2008). It has been established
that they grow and fruit on various agricultural wastes (Monicaio et al., 2005). Furthermore, some of
these mushrooms have been cultivated in the laboratory (kadiri, 1994, Fasidi,
1995). These substrates could be used in commercial production of mushroom as
food (Fasidi, 1995). In this part of the world, nutritive foods are scarce and
when available they are usually very costly. However, lignocellulosic wastes
are abundantly available and labor is inexpensive.
1.1.1 Economic Importance
Mushrooms
have long been favored by Asian people as food stuff in soup. Nowadays
mushrooms are found in markets throughout America, Europe, Asia as well as
Africa. Popularity of mushrooms is ever increasing throughout every part of the
world because of its exotic flavor and their culinary properties whether eaten
alone or in a combination with other foods. Mushroom is used as delicious item
for our food menu containing both nutritive and medicinal value (Agrahar-Nurugkar,
et al., 2005; Cheung and Cheung,
2005). Shitake contains almost all the essential amino acids, with lysine
arginine being particularly abundant (Oliu and Bau, 1980) and methionine and phenylalanine
less abundant (Lasota and Sylvestrzak, 1989).
The
Chinese, Korean, European and Japanese also use mushrooms extensively in
cooking in many cusines. Mushrooms are known as the ‘meat’ of the vegetable
world (Haas and James, 2009).
Also
mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The
chromophores of mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and
vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom
dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the source of many
textile dyes (Mussak and Bechtold, 2009).
Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms have been used
as fire starters (known as tinder fungi). Mushrooms and other fungi play a role
in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using
mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi
to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water) (Kushreshtha et al., 2004).
1.1.2 Mushrooms as a Source of Food
Man
has been hunting for the wild mushrooms since antiquity (Cooke, 1977).
Thousands of years ago, fructifications of higher fungi have been used as a
source of food (Mattila et al., 2001)
due to their chemical composition which is attractive from the nutrition point
of view. During the early days of civilization, mushrooms were consumed mainly
for their palatability and unique flavors (Rai, 1994, 1997). Present use of
mushrooms is totally different from traditional because, lot of research has
been done on the chemical composition of mushrooms, which revealed that
mushrooms can be used as a diet to combat diseases. Lintzel (1941, 1943)
recommended that 100 to 200 g of mushrooms (dry weight) is required to maintain
an optimal nutritional balance in a man weighing 70 kg.
Bano
et al. (1963) determined the nutritive value of Pleurotus flabellatus as
0.974% ash, 1.084% crude fibre, 0.105% fat, 90.95% moisture, 0.14% non-protein
nitrogen and 2.75% protein. Bano (1976) suggested that food value of mushrooms
lies between meat and vegetables. Crisan and Sands (1978) observed that
mushrooms in general contain 90% water and 10% dry matter. More so, the protein
content varies between 27 and 48%. Carbohydrates are less than 60% and lipids
are between 2 to 8%. Gruen and Wong,
(1982) indicated that edible mushrooms were highly nutritional and compared favorably
with meat, egg and milk food sources. Of several thousand mushroom species
known worldwide, only around 2000 are considered edible, of which about 20 are
cultivated commercially with only 4 to 5 under industrial production (Chang,
1990). There is also a significant difference in the nutrient contents of
pileus verses stalks (Latifah et al.,
1996; Zakia et al., 1993).
The
carbohydrate content of mushrooms represents the bulk of fruiting bodies
accounting for 50 to 65% on dry weight basis. Free sugars amounts to about 11%.
Florezak et al. (2004) reported that Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.: Fr.) Fr. contain 24% of carbohydrate on dry
weight basis. The mannitol, also called as mushroom sugar constitutes about 80%
of the total free sugars, hence it is dominant (Tseng and Mau, 1999; Wannet et al., 2000). Protein is an important
constituent of dry matter of mushrooms (Aletor, 1995; Alofe et al., 1995; Fasidi and Kadiri, 1990;
Florczak and Lasota, 1995; Zrodlowski, 1995; Chang and Buswell, 1996). Protein
content of mushrooms depends on the composition of the substratum, size of
pileus, harvest time and species of mushrooms (Bano and Rajarathnam, 1982).
Protein content of the mushrooms has also been reported to vary from flush to
flush (Crisan and Sands, 1978). Verma et
al. (1987) reported that mushrooms are very useful for vegetarian because
they contain some essential amino acids which are found in animal proteins.
In mushrooms, the fat content is very low as
compared to carbohydrates and proteins. The fats present in mushroom fruiting
bodies are dominated by unsaturated fatty acids. Singer (1961) determined the
fat content of some mushrooms as 2.04% in Suillus
granulatus, 3.66% in Suillus luteus
and 2.32% in A. campestris. Hugaes (1962) observed that mushrooms are
rich in linolenic acid which is an essential fatty acid. Ogundana and Fagade
(1981) indicated that mushrooms have 4.481% fats on dry weight basis. Mushrooms
are considered good source of fats and minerals (Jiskani, 2001). Yilmaz et al.
(2006) and Pedneault et al. (2006)
reported that fat fraction in mushrooms is mainly composed of unsaturated fatty
acids.
Mushrooms
are one of the best sources of vitamins especially Vitamin B (Breene, 1990;
Mattila et al., 1994; Zrodlowski,
1995; Chang and Buswell, 1996; Mattila et
al., 2000). Mushrooms also contain vitamin C in small amounts (Sapers et al., 1999; Mattila et al., 2001) which are poor in vitamins
A, D, and E (Anderson and Fellers, 1942).
The
fruiting bodies of mushrooms are characterized by a high level of well
assimilated mineral elements. Major mineral constituents in mushrooms are K, P,
Na, Ca, Mg and elements like Cu, Zn, Fe, Mo, Cd
form minor constituents (Bano
and Rajarathanum, 1982; Bano et al., 1981;
Chang, 1982). K, P, Na and Mg constitute about 56 to 70% of the total ash
content of the mushrooms (Li and Chang, 1982) while potassium alone forms 45%
of the total ash. The mineral proportions vary according to the species, age
and the diameter of the fruiting body. It also depends upon the type of the
substratum (Demirbas, 2001).
1.1.3 Medicinal Importance
Medical
mycology is as old as traditional uses of mushrooms. They have been used in
medicine since the Neolithic and Paleolithic eras (Samorini, 2001). Although
mushrooms as medicine have been used in China since 100 A.D. (Gunde, 1999), but
it was only in 1960 that scientists investigated the basic active principles of
mushrooms which are health promoting. Mushrooms have been used in health care
for treating simple and age old common diseases like skin diseases to present
day complex and pandemic disease like diabetics. They are reputed to possess
anti-allergic, anti-cholesterol, anti-tumor and anti-cancer properties
(Jiskani, 2001). Aqueous extracts from Pleurotus
sajor-caju proves good in renal failure (Tam et al., 1986). Pharmaceutical substances with potent and unique
health enhancing properties have been isolated from mushrooms (Wasser and Weis,
1999).
Fresh
mushrooms are known to contain both soluble and insoluble fibres; the soluble
fibre is mainly beta-glucans polysaccharides and chitosans which are components
of the cell walls (Sadler, 2003). Soluble fibre present in mushrooms prevents
and manages cardiovascular diseases (Chandalia et al., 2000). Wasser (2005) reported that mushroom health
supplements are marketed in the form of powders, capsules or tablets made of
dried fruiting bodies, extracts of mycelium with substrate, biomass or extract
from liquid fermentation. Typical example is Ganodoma product.
1.1.4 World Production of Mushroom
Diversification
of the mushroom industry, in terms of number and quantity of species
cultivated, has accelerated worldwide during the 1980s and 1990s. Twenty years
ago, 70% of the world's mushroom supply was Agaricus
bisporus, but by the mid-1990s, this had fallen to only 37% (Royse, 1997).
Total mushroom production worldwide has increased more than 18-fold in the last
32 years, from about 350,000 metric tons in 1965 to about 6,160,800 metric tons
in 1997. The bulk of this increase has occurred during the last 15 years. A
considerable shift has occurred in the composite of genera that constitute the
mushroom supply. During the 1979
production year, the button mushroom, Agaricus
bisporus, accounted for over 70 per cent of the world’s supply. By 1997,
only 32 per cent of world production was A.
bisporus. The People’s Republic of China is the major producer of edible
mushrooms, producing about 14 million tons in 2006.
Flammulina
ranks at fourth place in the category of edible mushrooms for production and
consumption. During 1990, its production was estimated to be approximately
143,000 tons, which increased to 230,000 tons in 1994, showing a remarkable
jump of 61% (Chang 1996).Worldwide 1986 production of F. velutipes (enokitake) has increased from about 100,000 tonnes in
1986 to about 187,000 t in 1991 (87% increase).
Worldwide
production of F. velutipes (enokitake
has increased from about 143,000 metric tons in 1990 to about 285,000t in 1997
(a 2-fold increase), (Chang, 1999). Japan is the main producer of winter
mushroom (Furukawa, 1987). In 1986, Japan produced 74,387tonnes; by 1991,
production had risen to 95,123 tones and, by 1997, Japan produced 174,100 tones
-an increase of about 45% in six years. From these data, it is evident that
other countries are enjoying a faster growth rate, in terms of total
production. In the United States, for example, winter mushroom production has
increased at an estimated rate of 25% or more per year for the last four years.
Lee
and Park (1994) investigated the profitability of bottle mushroom cultivation
in the Korea Republic and suggested that for a production level of 2000 bottles
per day, it requires a total expenditure of worth 5 million and obtains an
annual net income of worth 110 million. For a production level of 1000 bottles
per day, Pleurotus ostreatus requires
a total expenditure of worth 300 million and provides an annual net income of
worth 30 million.
1.1.5 OVERVIEW OF PLEUROTUS MUSHROOMS
Pleurotus species
belongs to phylum Basidiomycota that produce oyster shaped mushrooms
(basidiocarps) and accordingly they have been called as oyster mushroom. Oyster
mushroom enjoys worldwide distribution from temperate to tropical regions
growing saprophytically at a temperature range of 12-32°C (Zadrazil, 1978).
They may be white to variously colored, stalked or sessile, above or
underground and even epiphytic but rarely parasitic comprising of about 40
species. Pleurotus species grows on
various types of lignocellulosic un-composted agro- wastes and produce Oyster
mushroom rich in high value proteins, vitamins and minerals; Oyster mushroom
contains very lower amount of carbohydrates, sugars and no or very lesser
amount of cholesterol (Wasser and Weis,
1999). Extensive work on medicinal attributes of Pleurotus was done by Wang, Li and their colleagues in the first
decade of the new millennium (Wang and Ng 2001, Wang and Ng 2004, Li et al., 2008). Later Gregori et al, (2007) updated and reviewed the
research activities in the last two decades not only for its nutritional and
medicinal values of Pleurotus species.
Recently Khan and Tania (2012) have given a comprehensive account of nutritional
with some medicinal aspects of Pleurotus
species. The present review gives an updated comprehensive account of medicinal
properties of Pleurotus species to
help the researchers in their crusade to explore more untapped metabolites from
this mushroom fungus that can be used as new life-saving drugs.
Oyster
mushrooms are also considered as functional foods because they elicit their
positive effect on human being in several ways (Sadler and Saltmarsh, 1998). Functional
food comprises products of microbial, plants and animals origin containing
physiologically active compounds beneficial for human health and reducing the
risk of chronic diseases. It includes dietary supplements, nutriceuticals,
medicinal foods, vita foods, pharma foods, phytochemicals, mycochemicals and so
on (Hasler 1996).
Fruiting
bodies as well as active mycelia of Pleurotus
also possesses a number of therapeutic properties like anti-inflammatory, immune-stimulatory and
immune-modulatory (Asfors and Ley 1993), anticancer activity (Wasser, 2002),
ribonuclease activity (Wang and Ng 2000) and many more activities detailed
later. Though Oyster mushroom is third important mushroom of culinary value,
there has been an upsurge in Pleurotus
mushroom research activities in the last two decades not only for its nutritive and medicinal values but many other biopotentialities
of Pleurotus species such recycling
of agricultural residues (Rajarathanam et
al., 1996, Singh et al., 2010).
bioconversion of lignocellulosic wastes (Sharma et al., 1996, Salmones et
al., 2005), production or improved animal feed [37], bioremediation and
degradation of xenobiotics (Morgan and
Watkinson 1991, Buswell 2001), industrial dye degradation (Shin et al., Epindola et al., 2007), enzyme production (Naraian et al., 2010, Daba et al.,
2011) etc.
1.1.6 Overview of Pleurotus ostreatus
Pleurotus ostreatus,
the oyster mushroom is a common edible mushroom. It was cultivated in Germany
as a subsistence measure during World War 1 (Eger et al., 1976) and is now grown commercially around the world for
food. It is related the similarly cultivated king oyster mushroom.
Oyster
mushrooms can also be used industrially for mycoremediation purposes. The
oyster mushroom is one of the more commonly sought wild mushrooms, though it
can also be cultivated on straw and other media. It has the bittersweet aroma
of benzaldehyde (which is also characteristic of bitter almonds) (Beltran-Garcia
et al., 1997).
Both
the Latin and common names refer to the shape of the fruiting-body. The Latin Pleurotus (sideways) refer to the
sideways growth of the stem with respect to the cap, while the Latin ostreatus (and the English common name,
Oyster) refers to the shape of the cap which resemble the bivalve of the same
name. Many also believe that the name is fitting due to a flavor resemblance to
oysters. The name oyster is also applied to other Pleurotus species, so P.ostreatus
is sometimes referred to as the Tree oyster mushroom (Stamets, 2000) or the
Grey oyster mushroom (Hall, 2010) to differentiate it from other species in the
genus.
The
oyster mushroom is widespread in many temperate and subtropical forests
throughout the world, although it is absent from the Pacific Northwest of North
America, being replaced by P. pulmonarius
and P. populinus (Trudell, 2009). It
is a saprotroph that act as a primary decomposer of woods, especially deciduous
trees, and beech trees in particular (Philips, 2006).
The
oyster mushroom is frequently used in Japanese, Korea and Chinese cookery as a
delicacy. It is frequently served on its own, in soups, stuffed, or dry in
stir-fry recipes with soy sauce. Oyster mushrooms are sometimes made into a
sauce, used in Asian cooking, which is similar to oyster sauce. Oyster
mushrooms are also used in the Czech and Slovak contemporary cuisine in soups
and stews as a replacement for meat (Slovak, 2015).
Researchers
in Mexico have shown that oyster mushroom can break down disposable diapers
(Wall, 2011), one preliminary study showed that consumption of oyster mushroom
extracts lowered cholesterol levels, an effect linked to their content of beta-glucans
(Rop et al., 2009).
1.1.7
Objective
of the Study
i)
To assess the supplementation
of Andropogon gayanus with Gmelina arborea for the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus.
ii)
To determine the growth
pattern of the mushroom cultivated on Andropogon
gayanus supplemented with Gmelina
arborea.
iii)
To evaluate the proximate
composition of the mushroom cultivated on Andropogon
gayanus supplemented with Gmelina
arborea.
1.1.8 Justification
It
is obvious that the importance of mushroom is enormous. As a matter of fact,
mushroom is consumed on daily basis as food sources and it is regarded as
health additive to any diet because of its high concentration of protein and
also used in treatment of cardiovascular disorders, (Guillamon et al., 2010). Due to the increased
recognition of its nutritional and medicinal values, coupled with the
realization of income generating potential of the fungi through trade, most
developed countries especially china and India, mushroom has become an item of
great values. These countries have generated lots of income from mushroom
production and their marketing within and outside their religion (Qi and Hui,
2010).
Considering
the enormous potentials of mushrooms, more works and researchers are required
for its cultivation so as to know substrates (agricultural wastes) that support
the growth and yields of mushrooms. Furthermore, since the price of fish, meat
and other protein sources are on constant increase, there is a need to embark
on researches that would increase the commercial production of mushroom as well
as exportation to neighboring countries in other to generate income.
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