TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
LIST
OF TABLES vii
LIST
OF FIGURES ix
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the study 1
1.2
Scope 4
1.4
Justification 5
1.5
Statement of Problem 5
1.6
Aim 5
1.7
Objectives 5
CHAPTER
TWO
LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1 Properties of concrete with POFA 6
2.1.1 Physical properties 6
2.1.2 Chemical Properties of POFA 7
2.1.3 Mechanical properties of POFA 8
2.2 Compressive Strength of Concrete with
Replaced POFA 10
2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) of
Concrete with Replaced POFA 13
2.4 Workability of Concrete with Replaced POFA 14
2.5 Porosity of Concrete with Replaced POFA 16
2.6 Permeability of Concrete with Replaced POFA 18
2.7 Properties of Cement 19
2.7.1 Physical properties of Cement 19
2.7.2Mechanical properties of Cement 20
2.7.3Chemical Properties of Cement 20
2.7.4Cement hydration 20
CHAPTER
THREE
STUDY
AREA
3.0 Materials Used and Methodology 22
3.1. Materials 22
3.1.1 Cement
23
3.1.2 Aggregate 23
3.1.3 Granite 23
3.1.4 Gravel 23
3.1.5 Water 24
3.1.6 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) 24
3.2 Methodology 25
3.2.1. Sieve Analysis Procedure 25
3.2.2 Specific Gravity of Ordinary Portland
Cement Determination 26
3.2.2.1 Experimental Procedure 27
3.3: Concrete Mix Design 29
3.4 Fresh Concrete Workability 30
3.5 Density 31
3.6 Determination of Compressive Strength 31
CHAPTER
FOUR
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Oxides Composition of POFA 33
4.2 Grain size distributions from sieve
analysis 34
4.3 Compressive Strength Test Results 35
4.4 Optimum Mix Ratio Determination 52
CHAPTER
FIVE
CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 53
5.2 Recommendation 54
REFERENCES 55
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1: Chemical composition
range of OPC and POFA 7
Table 2. 2: Chemical
composition analysis in POFA 8
Table 2. 3: Compressive
strength of concrete with various percentages of POFA 10
Table 2. 4: Tensile
strength of concrete by the addition of various % of POFA 10
Table 3. 1: Concrete mix
design based on design expert 2
Table 4. 1: Oxides composition of POFA 33
Table 4. 2: Fine sand grain
size distributions from sieve analysis 34
Table 4. 3: Granite size
distributions from sieve analysis 35
Table4. 4: specific gravity
of cement and POFA 35
Table 4. 5: Compressive
strength at 7 days of curing age 36
Table 4. 6: Compressive
strength for 28 days curing age 40
Table 4. 7: Compressive
strength for 56 days curing age 44
Table 4. 8: Compressive
strength for 90 days curing age 46
Table 4. 9summary of
compressive strength (n/mm2) at different POFA mix ratio 49
Table 4. 10: Regression
analysis for 7 days age concrete 50
Table 4. 11: Regression
analysis for 28 days age concrete 50
Table 4. 12: Regression analysis for 56 days age concrete 51
Table 4. 13: Regression
analysis for 90 days age concrete 51
Table 4. 14: Analysis of
variance for compressive strength 51
LIST
OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1: Strength versus UPV 9
Figure 2. 2: Compressive strength versus POFA
replacement percentage 12
Figure 2. 3: Strength activity index of POFA
mortar 13
Figure 2. 4: Relationship between UPV and
replacement percentage 14
Figure 2. 5: Slump flow against POFA percentage 16
Figure 2. 6: Relationship between porosity
and POFA content 17
Figure 2. 7: Relationship between strength
and porosity of 80% content of POFA mortar 18
Figure 2. 8: relationship between
permeability and replacement level of POFA 19
Figure 3. 1: Map of Maiduguri town showing
Ramat Polytechnic 22
Figure 3. 2: Granite 23
Figure 3. 3 Palm oil kernel and ash 25
Figure 3. 4: sieve arrangement 26
Figure 3. 5: POFA replacement percentage
(25% - 35%) 29
Figure 3. 6: Granite replacement percentage
(0% - 100%) 29
Figure 3. 7: Cubes cast and curing 30
Figure 3. 8: Compressive strength test- 32
Figure 4. 1: Graph for grain size
distribution for fine sand 34
Figure 4. 2: Graph for grain size distribution
for granite 35
Figure 4. 3: Compressive strength vs granite
and POFA at 7 days curing age 37
Figure 4. 4: Slump height vs granite and POFA
at 7 days curing age 38
Figure 4. 5: Predicted and actual
compressive strength at 7 days curing age 39
Figure 4. 6: Predicted and actual slump
height at 7 days curing age 39
Figure 4. 7: Compressive strength vs granite
and POFA at 28 days curing age 41
Figure 4. 8: Sump height vs granite and POFA
at 28 days curing age 42
Figure 4. 9: Predicted and actual
compressive strength at 28 days curing age 43
Figure 4. 10: Predicted and actual slump
height at 28 days curing age 44
Figure 4. 11: Compressive strength vs
granite and POFA at 56 days curing age 45
Figure 4. 12: Slump height vs granite and POFA
at 56 days curing age 46
Figure 4. 13: Compressive strength vs
granite and POFA at 90 days curing age 47
Figure 4. 14: Slump height vs granite and POFA
at 90 days curing age 48
Figure 4. 15: Predicted and actual
compressive strength at 28 days curing age 48
Figure 4. 16: Predicted and actual slump
height at 28 days curing age 49
ABSTRACT
Utilizing Palm Oil
Fuel Ash (POFA) in concrete mix is a major way of turning waste to wealth.
Gravel as an aggregate is cheaper than granite. Thus, obtaining an optimum
combination of these materials in achieving a maximum compressive strength in
concrete will go a long way in helping the construction industry.The study was carried out to establish an
optimum replacement ratio for Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) blended granite-gravel
of concrete. Uniform water/binder (w/b) ratio of 0.5 and mixes ratio of 1:2:4
was utilized. Thirteen runs of experiments plus control were designed using the
Central Composite Response Surface method (Design Expert). Based on the
analysis, the increase in granite
volume led to increase in compressive strength. However, increase in POFA
percentage led to decrease in compressive strength at 7, 28, 56 and 90 days
curing ages. The study also observed highest compressive strength at 25%
POFA replacement and lowest at 35% replacement. Also, for granite, highest and
lowest compressive strength were achieved at 100% and 0% replacement
respectively. However, for slump height, the higher the percentage of granite
or POFA in concrete, the higher the slump height. The optimization analysis
showed that, at 29.69% POFA and 98.75% Granite, compressive strength of 24.29
N/mm2 and slump height of 89.36mm were achieved. The optimum
strength found is slightly higher than the maximum strength achieved (24.27N/mm2)
at 90 days and also, slightly lower than the control (25.33 N/mm2).
CHAPTER
ONE
Concrete is regarded as the primary and
widely used construction ingredient around the world in which cement is the key
material. However, large scale cement production contributes greenhouse gases
both directly through the production of CO2 during manufacturing and
also through the consumption of energy (combustion of fossil fuels). Moved by
the economic and ecological concerns of cement, researchers have focused on
finding a substitution of cement over the last several years. In order to
address both the concerns simultaneously many attempts have been made in the
past to use materials available as by product or waste. This is due to the fact
that the use of by product not only eliminates the additional production cost,
but also results in safety to the environment. Hence, the development and use
of blended cement is growing rapidly in the construction industry mainly due to
considerations of cost saving, energy saving, environmental protection and
conservation of resources.
A
number of investigations have been carried out with Palm oil fuel ash (POFA),
an agro-waste ash, as potential replacement of cement in concrete. Sata et al.
(2004) found compressive strength of 81.3, 85.9, and 79.8 MPa at the age of 28
days by using improved POFA with a reduced particle size of about 10 microns in
concrete as replacement of 10%, 20% and 30% of cement respectively. They also
reported highest strength at 20% replacement level. Tangchirapat [2009]
observed the compressive strengths of ground POFA concrete in the range of
59.5–64.3 MPa at 28 days of water curing and with 20% replacement it was as
high as 70 MPa at the end of 90 days of water curing. However, the drying
shrinkage and water permeability were noted to be lower than that of control
concrete with improved sulphate resistance. Past researchers also depict that
both ground and un-ground POFA increase the water demand and thus decrease the
workability of concrete. However, ground POFA has shown a good potential for
improving the hardened properties and durability of concrete due to its
satisfactory micro-filling ability and pozzolanic activity. Palm
Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) is known as the by-product form from the incineration of
the palm oil fibers, shells, and empty fruit bunches in the biomass thermal
power plant to generate energy. However, it was found that 5 % of the residue
was then produced as the result of combustion and the wastes are then managed
by disposing as landfill materials which lead to environmental hazards
eventually. As stated by Aprianti et al. (2015), POFA is tagged as the
environmental disruption pollutant which ends up in the atmosphere without
being utilized in 20th and 21st century, if compared to
other types of palm oil by-products.
Over the past several decades, attempt has been made to use several
waste and by product material produced by the industries as potential partial
replacement of cement in concrete. Investigations have been carried out through
replacing part cement with industrial and other wastes such as Silica fume,
ground granulated blast furnace slag, bagasse ash, rice husk ash, palm oil fuel
ash, Paper mill ash, Wheat straw ash, Wallostonite, Metakaolin and many more
(Karim et al., 2014). The use of these materials in concrete has significant
benefits from environmental and economic stand point in comparison to
traditional cement.
In order to promote the utilization of
POFA, many researchers established the researches regarding the POFA as the
Supplementary Cementitious (SCM) in either concrete or mortar. The properties
and performances of the finished products were examined and the researchers
commented that the utilization of the POFA as a supplementary materials of
cement is suitable. This is because the ash can increase the engineering and
durability properties of either concrete or mortar.
Karim
et al., (2011) discovered that concrete produced using a particular level of POFA
replacement achieved same or more strength as compared to OPC concrete. No
significant strength reduction of concrete was observed up to about 30%
replacement of POFA. Safiuddin et al., (2012) observed that the use of POFA is
limited to a partial replacement, ranging from 0-30% by weight of the total
cementitious material in the production of concrete. Indeed, the partial
replacement has a beneficial effect on the general properties of concrete as
well as cost. Sata et al., (2010) investigated that the strength development of
POFA concretes with w/c ratios of 0.50, 0.55, and 0.60 tended to be in the same
direction. At early ages, concretes containing POFA as a cement replacement of
10, 20, and 30% had lower strength development than control concretes while at
later age 28 days, the replacement at rates of 10 and 20% yielded higher
strength development. Mohammed Hussin and Awal., (2009) studied concrete
replaced with POFA with a water to binder ratio of 0.45, were seen to develop
strength exceeding the design strength of almost 60MPa at 28-day. Hussin et
al., (2009) discovered that inclusion of 20% POFA would produce concrete having
highest strength as compared to any other replacement level. Ahmad et al.,
(2008) studied that one of the potential recycles material from palm oil
industry is palm oil fuel ash which contains siliceous compositions and reacted
as pozzolans to produce a stronger and denser concrete. Pozzolanic material has little or no
cementing properties. However, when it has a fine particle size, in the
presence of moisture it can react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
temperatures to provide the cementing property. Ahmad et al., (2008) reported
that the chemical composition of POFA contains a large amount of silica and has
high potential to be used as a cement replacement. Hussin et al., (2009) have
found that POFA can be used in the construction industry, specifically as a
supplementary cementitious material in concrete. Hussin et al., (2009) studied
the compressive strength of concrete containing POFA. The results revealed that
it was possible to replace at a level of 40% POFA without affecting compressive
strength. The maximum compressive strength gain occurred at a replacement level
of 30% by weight of binder. Karim et al., (2011) investigated that replacing
10–50% ash by weight of cementitious material in blended cement had no
significant effect on segregation, shrinkage, water absorption, density, or
soundness of concrete.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete i.e.
concrete with 100% OPC and ordinary gravel as control, and concrete with 25% -
35% POFA replacement and granite-gravel of 0% - 100% replacement having uniform
water/binder (w/b) ratios of 0.5 and mixes ratio of 1:2:4 were used. Curing
ages of 7 days, 28 days, 56 days and 90 days were considered.
Utilizing Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) in
concrete mix is a major way of turning waste to wealth. Gravel as an aggregate
is cheaper than granite. Thus, obtaining an optimum combination of these
materials in achieving a maximum compressive strength in concrete will go a
long way in helping the construction industry.
Large scale cement production contributes to greenhouse gases both
directly through the production of CO2 during manufacturing and also
through the consumption of energy. Therefore, this study examines the
suitability of Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) replacement with cement as
Supplementary Cementing Materials. One of the potential recycle materials from
palm oil industry is palm oil fuel ash which contains siliceous compositions
and reacted as pozzolans to produce a stronger and denser concrete
To determine the mechanical properties of
Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA). To address the aim, the following objectives were
identified:
- To
determine concrete compressive strength of granite-gravel concrete at varying
replacement of Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) at different curing ages.
- To establish
an optimum replacement of Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) in granite-gravel
blended.
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