ABSTRACT
This study explored the effectiveness of three teaching methods on academic achievement of Chemistry students in Cross River State. Literature was reviewed based on the dependent and independent variables. The study had eight objectives from which eight research questions and six null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Quasi-experimental, non-randomised design, embodying pretest, treatment, control and post-test was adopted. The population for the study comprised 4200 SSII students in public secondary schools out of which a sample of 396 students was drawn, using purposive sampling technique. Same sampling technique was used to select six secondary schools from a population of 58 public secondary schools in Cross River State southern educational zone. A 30-item multiple choice practical chemistry achievement test (PCAT) administered as pretest and post-test was used in gathering data for the experiment. The reliability of the research instruments were determined using Kuder-Richardson 21 (KR-21) which gave a reliability coefficient of 0.80. Data gathered were analysed using mean and standard deviation for research questions and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for the hypotheses with pretest as covariate. The analysis revealed that guided-inquiry and concept-mapping were more facilitative than lecture method of teaching. Gender and school location had no significant influence on academic achievement of students. The study concluded that the two more facilitative methods be adopted for teaching chemistry for optimal results.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract
vi
Table
of Contents vii
List
of Tables ix
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Purpose of the Study 5
1.4 Research Questions 6
1.5 Research Hypotheses 7
1.6 Significance of the Study 8
1.7 Scope of the Study 9
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Conceptual Framework 10
2.1.1 Concept of academic achievement 10
2.1.2 Concept-mapping teaching strategy 11
2.1.3 Guided-inquiry teaching strategy 16
2.1.4 Lecture method of teaching 18
2.1.5 Concept of school location 19
2.1.6 Concept of gender 19
2.1.7 Nature of chemistry practicals 20
2.1.8 Relevance of practical to the teaching and
learning of chemistry 21
2.1.9 Mole concept 22
2.1.10 Chemical analysis: titration 23
2.1.11 Oxidation and reduction 30
2.1.12 Qualitative analysis 32
2.2 Theoretical Framework 38
2.2.1 Constructivism 38
2.2. Jerome Bruner’s Discovery learning theory 39
2.3 Empirical Studies 40
2.3.1 Concept-mapping and student’s achievement in
chemistry 40
2.3.2 Guided-Inquiry and student’s achievement in
chemistry 42
2.3.3 Lecture method and student’s academic
achievement 43
2.3.4 Effect of school location on academic
achievement 44
2.3.5 Effect
of gender on academic achievement 46
2.4 Summary
of literature 47
CHAPTER
3: RESEARCH METHOD
3.1 Design of the Study 49
3.2 Area of Study 50
3.3 Population of Study 51
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique 51
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection 52
3.6 Validation of Instrument 52
3.7 Reliability of Instrument 52
3.8 Method of Data Collection 53
3.9 Control of Extraneous Variables 54
3.10 Method of Data Analysis 55
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Results 56
4.2 Major Findings of the Study 69
4.3 Discussion of Findings 71
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of the Study 75
5.2 Conclusion 77
5.3 Recommendation 78
5.4 Limitations of the Study 78
5.5 Suggestions
for Further Studies 78
References 80
Appendices 105
LIST OF TABLES
Page
2.1: Volumetric analysis – titration 29
2.2: Identification of radicals (Anions) 35
2.3: Identification of cations 36
4.1: Research question 1 55
4.2: Research question 2 56
4.3: Research question 3 57
4.4: Research question 4 57
4.5: Research question 5 58
4.6: Research question 6 59
4.7: Research question 7 60
4.8: Research question 8 61
4.9: Hypothesis 1 62
4.10: Hypothesis 2 63
4.11: Hypothesis 3 64
4.12: Hypothesis 4 65
4.13: Hypothesis 5 66
4.14: Hypothesis 6 67
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Every nation in the world strives
for development and growth. In Nigeria for instance, government views education
as an instrument par excellence for the realization of national growth (FGN,
2013). To actualize national development dreams, human capacity building
becomes imperative. Citizens must be equipped with knowledge, skills and
competence for critical thinking and problem solving to ensure survival of the
society. Education in effect becomes the medium and vehicle for the attainment
of and delivery of these auspicious goals.
Yunus (2013) defines education as efforts made by an
educator to influence and assist a learner with the aim of improving knowledge,
physical and morals that can gradually help the learner achieve the highest
goal. In order for the child to live happily and all that will likely be
beneficial to himself and society.”
Education is a perennial process of learning in a child that involves his
or her physical, intellectual, emotional and willingness as manifested in the
environment (Horn, 2013). Teaching, which enables us acquire education may be
defined as series of interactions
between someone in the role of a teacher and some other in the role of a
learner, with the explicit goal of changing one or more of the learner’s
cognitive, affective and psychomotor state (Uche, 2004). Academic achievement
which greatly depends on the quality of teaching refers to an abstract term
expressing quality. It is measured by tests, examinations, observation and
assignments (Wittrock, 2006). Academic achievement indicates the value of the
numerical score a student obtains in an examination. A higher numerical score
is indicative of a better or higher academic achievement, especially in an
examination or test free of malpractice.
Science is knowledge arranged in an organized or
orderly manner, especially knowledge derived from experience, observation and
experimentation. Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge and is based on what
we can see, touch, taste, hear and smell.
It
is also a way of thinking in pursuit of understanding nature, a way of
investigating and a body of established knowledge (Aniodoh (2012). Chemistry
which is an aspect of science deals with the composition, structure and
properties of substances. Chemistry by its nature has its own words, symbols,
diagrams and notations which require effective teaching for students to learn
meaningfully. Akpan (2004) considers chemistry as the most important of the
physical sciences that directly affects man’s everyday life. Ironically, despite
the perceived importance of chemistry in technological development, research
report showed that the academic achievement of students in SSCE Chemistry is
poor.
Poor performance in chemistry has
been attributed to inadequate exposure of students to basic chemistry concepts,
its abstract nature, its relatedness to mathematics, students attitude towards
the subject, equipment, incompetent teachers, inappropriate and uninspiring
teaching methods ((Boujaoude and Barakate 2000; Ibrahim 2004). It has been observed
that teachers shy away from activity-oriented teaching methods which are known
to be effective and rely on the teaching methods that are easy, but most times
inadequate and inappropriate (Nwagbo, 2001). Some of the method used include,
lecture method, demonstration, discussion, project and field trip, but the most
commonly used is lecture or expository method. The lecture method fails to
recognize the uniqueness of the inquiry based nature of chemistry and the
learners individuality. Lecture method is teacher-centered as the teacher tends
to monopolized the communication activity with minimal involvement of the
learners. Although the method helps teachers to cover more content within a
lesson period, it only allows little time for questioning and lack of student
interaction with concrete materials makes them get bored.
The strategies include; inquiry,
concept-mapping, peer tutoring, analogy, learning activity package (LAP). In
line with the need for innovative strategies, the Federal Ministry of Education
in its National Policy on Education stated that, “government shall take
necessary measure to ensure that teaching shall be practical, activity-base and
experiential” (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2013). The subject chemistry
involves many practical works and hence should be activity based.
Activity-based strategy which is synonymous with guided-inquiry or discovery is
a teaching strategy where students are actively involved in the teaching
learning process and the teacher has to create enticing opportunities for the
learners to learn by doing (Pintrich, 2001). This method gives learners
opportunity to explore their learning environment and make learning joyful and
long-lasting (Shukla, 2011). Corroborating the stand, Mohammed (2011) stated
that guided-inquiry teaching strategy is a process which encourages students to
solve problems in a logical and systematic manner using science process skills
such as observing, data collecting, comparing, informing, hypothesizing, experimenting,
and interpreting data.
The word concept refers to an idea or principle that
is connected with something abstract or concrete. While map means to associate
or relate something (e.g. concept) to link a group of qualities of items with
their source, cause and position. It means
to plan, draw or arrange something in a careful or detailed way (Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary). Naidux (2003) defined concept-map as a graphical or
diagrammatic arrangement of key concepts to show meaningful relationship among
the concepts or ideas being studied. It is a pedagogical strategy or
metacognitive tool based on Ausubel-Novak-Godwin theory of meaningful learning
(Novak and Godwin 2004). It is based on the idea that meaningful learning
occurs when new knowledge is consciously and deliberately linked with relevant
concepts which the learner already knows. That is teaching from the known to the
unknown and from concrete to the abstract.
Another factor militating against effective teaching
and learning is school location. This is why Egim (2012) averred that school
environment is one of the problems inhibiting effective teaching and learning
as most teachers prefer urban schools to rural schools due to availability of
amenities like electricity and pipe-borne water. Fan (2008) maintained that
rurality connotes deprivation. This implies that Cross River State citizens
resident in rural areas suffer many types of deprivation including perhaps
academic deprivations. This study sought to verify this speculation. Akagbogu
(2004) carried out a study on
the effect of school location on the academic achievement of secondary school
students and found that school location as rural and
urban significantly influenced academic achievement of students.
Research reports by Okoli (2009) and Okeke (2011) indicate
that gender gap exist in science and technology education and employment
opportunities in Nigeria. The report further stated that women and girls are
under represented in science, technology and engineering fields, The few that
venture into such fields are discriminated against in employment opportunities.
This is why Okebukola (2010) averred that in spite of the fact that 50% of the
population of Nigeria are women only 11% of personnel in science, technical and
engineering profession are women. The under representation of women and girls
in science and technology education is worrisome hence needs investigation to establish
effects of gender on students achievement in sciences.
This study is therefore designed to comparatively
analyse the effect of three teaching strategies or methods (concept-mapping,
guided-inquiry and lecture), school location and gender on academic achievement
of senior secondary chemistry students in Cross River State.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The continuous high rate of failure in science subjects and Chemistry in
particular has been associated with two factors: quality and quantity of
teaching facilities and techniques. Over the years, records have shown that
there is a decline in the level of students’ performance in Chemistry in West
African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO). A
close examination of the factors responsible for dismal performance indicates
that most public secondary schools are not effective in the use of interactive
instructional strategies for teaching. In affirmation, Oranu (2003) stressed
that traditional teaching methods which are based on behavioral learning
theories are teacher-centered and do not give students enough opportunities to
participate in the classroom instruction. The shortcoming in traditional
teaching methods of teaching which is due to absence of students’ active
involvement in classroom activities during instruction could be responsible for
observed continuous poor academic achievement of secondary school students in
Chemistry.
The
continuous poor academic achievement of students in Chemistry is causing great
deal of concern to the stakeholders in secondary school education in Cross
River State. The poor achievement of students in Chemistry has affected
negatively number of enrolment of students in Chemistry-related
courses such as Medicine, Pharmacy, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Veterinary
Medicine, Agricultural Science, Food Science Technology and Chemical
Engineering in tertiary institutions in the state. The conventional lecture and
demonstration methods employed by most teachers in secondary school in Cross
River State seem inadequate for equipping students for better academic
achievement and interest in the study of Chemistry.
The relevance of
Chemistry to medical, pharmaceutical, agricultural, petrochemical and many
other industrial fields cannot be disputed. In spite of its relevance there had
been persistent poor academic achievement of students in science subjects
generally and chemistry in particular. The West African Examination Council
(WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO) between 2009-2013 has
consistently revealed poor achievement in chemistry (WAEC; Chief Examiners
Report 2009-2013). The persistent poor academic performance of students tends
to raise doubts on the efficacy of the teaching methods used by the teachers.
This is why there is need to explore other areas of presenting chemistry
concept especially practical chemistry an indispensable aspect of the subjects
to enhance meaningful learning and academic achievement.
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The general purpose of
the study is to find out the effect of concept-mapping and guided-inquiry on
students achievement in senior secondary practical chemistry in Cross River
State.
Specifically,
the study sought to:
(1)
find out the mean
achievement scores of students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping
and those taught with lecture method of
teaching.
(2)
determine the mean
achievement scores of students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and those
taught with lecture method.
(3)
find out the mean
achievement scores of chemistry students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping
and those taught with lecture method by gender.
(4)
determine the achievement
scores of students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and those
taught with lecture method of teaching by gender.
(5)
find out the achievement
scores of students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping and those
taught with lecture method by location (rural and
urban schools).
(6)
find out the achievement
scores of students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and those
taught with lecture method by school location (rural &
urban schools).
(7)
determine the interaction
effect of treatments and gender on students with respect to their mean achievement
scores in practical.
(8)
determine the interaction
effect of treatments and school location on students with respect to their mean
achievement scores in practical.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following
research questions were raised and answered:
(1)
What are the mean
achievement scores of students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping
and those taught with lecture method of
teaching?
(2)
What are the mean
achievement scores of students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and those
taught with lecture method?
(3)
What are the mean
achievement scores of chemistry students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping
and those taught with lecture method by gender?
(4)
What are the achievement
scores of students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and lecture
method of teaching by gender?
(5)
What are the achievement
scores of students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping and those
taught with lecture method by location (rural and
urban schools)?
(6)
What are the achievement
scores of students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and those
taught with lecture method by school location (rural &
urban schools)?
(7)
What are the interaction
effects of treatments and gender on students with respect to their mean achievement
scores in practical chemistry?
(8)
What are the interaction
effects of treatments and school location on students with respect to their
mean achievement scores in practical chemistry?
1.5 NULL HYPOTHESES
The following null hypotheses which
are formulated at 0.05 level of significance guided the study.
H01:
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping and those taught
using lecture method of teaching.
H02:
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and those taught using
lecture method.
H03:
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
chemistry students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping and lecture
method by gender.
H04:
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and lecture method of
teaching by gender.
H05:
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
students taught practical chemistry using concept-mapping and lecture method by
location (rural and urban schools).
H06:
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of
students taught practical chemistry using guided-inquiry and lecture method by
school location (rural and urban schools).
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The use of effective and innovative
strategies in teaching science, particularly chemistry at the secondary school
level, is a basis for setting educational standards at higher levels which
enhances scientific and technological development of any society. This study
will be of great importance to learners, teachers, school administrators, curriculum
planners, seminar and conference paper presenters.
It will instill in learners, ability
to brainstorm and generate concept-map to enhance interest in learning. This is
because, the interactive and student-centre natures of concept mapping and
guided inquiry will be revealed in the findings of the study.
The findings of the study will also
be beneficial to the students and learners. This is because, it will help
learners be able to explore their environment by interacting and manipulating
with objects or materials from their localities thereby enhancing learning by
doing.
The findings of this study will be
found useful to the teachers in secondary schools. This is because the findings
will serve as eye-opener to help acquaint teachers with the use of
concept-mapping and guided inquiry teaching strategies for effective teaching
and learning.
From the result of the study, the
use of concept mapping and guided inquiry are not gender sensitive. Hence, the
findings will help promote gender parity or equality and enhance academic
competition among opposite sexes as concept mapping and guided inquiry
instructional strategies are effective in enhancing academic achievement of
both male and female students.
The study will enhance development
of rural areas and use of local resources from local communities or immediate
environment for learning. This is because, the use of concept mapping and
guided inquiry instructional techniques are both effective in promoting
academic achievement of both rural and urban school students, hence, concept
mapping and guided inquiry are not location sensitive.
School administrators may adopt
concept-mapping and guided-inquiry as dominant method of teaching science in
schools as curriculum planner includes it in their review. Seminar and
conference paper presenters will use it as a reference material.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Learning experiences limited
to the mole, quantitative analysis, qualitative analysis and improvisation
using dried cocoa pod ashes CPA and Banana peel ashes B.P.A. content delivery was
by concept-mapping, guided-inquiry and lecture method. The research was
delineated to cover senior secondary II (SS II) students in public secondary
schools of the southern educational zone of Cross River State.
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