ABSTRACT
The study investigated the Effectiveness of self-control techniques, relapse prevention therapy and a combination of smoking behaviour among university undergraduates in Abia state, Nigeria. Seven research questions and seven null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance guided the study. The study adopted quasi-experimental research design employing non-randomized, pre-test posttest control group design. The population of the study comprised 602 students made up of 298 in MOUAU and 304 in ABSU in the 2017/2018 academic session. The sample size was 36 smokers assigned to the two treatment groups and the control group. The instruments for data collection were the “Students’ Smoking Behaviour Identification Scale” (SSBIS) and “Students’ Reinforcer Identification Schedule” (SRIS). The instruments were validated by three experts. The reliability index for SSBIS was 0.82, while that of SRIS was 0.72. The internal consistency of the instruments was determined using Cronbach Alpha method and the indices obtained were 0.86 and 0.75 for SSBIS and SRIS, respectively. The study adopted a systematic procedure for data collection. Data were collected in three phases, pre-treatment phase, post-treatment phase and the follow-up phase. Self-control techniques were intricately weaved into the counselling process and exposed to those in the self-control group in five sessions of approximately 45 minutes each and the SSBIS reshuffled and administered after two week’s interval to obtain the posttest score. Self-control and relapse prevention therapy techniques were exposed to those in the second treatment group in six sessions of approximately 45 minutes each and the SSBIS reshuffled and administered after a week’s interval to obtain the posttest score for that group. Data was also collected after a one-month period. The control group was a wait-list control group. Data obtained were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions while Student t-test was used for hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) used to test null hypothesis 7. Findings revealed that counselling interventions using self-control and a combination of self-control and relapse prevention therapy were effective in the reduction of smoking behaviour among undergraduates at posttest. However, a combination of self-control and relapse prevention therapy was more efficacious than single treatment. Treatment efficacies were maintained at follow-up. The null hypotheses one to six were not rejected. The findings of the study revealed gender differences at follow-up. It was thus concluded that self-control techniques and relapse prevention therapy were effective in the reduction of smoking behaviour among undergraduates in Abia State, Nigeria. It was thus recommended among others that professional counsellors should utilize these techniques in assisting smokers to quit their smoking behaviour which could help to improve their academic performance, enhance their interpersonal relationships and help them live meaningful and fulfilled lives.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of contents vi
List of tables vii
List of figures vii
Abstract
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 11
1.3 Purpose of the study 12
1.4 Significance of the study 13
1.5 Research questions 15
1.6 Hypotheses 16
1.7 Scope of the study 17
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
Conceptual Framework 18
2.1.1 Smoking
Behaviour 18
2.1.2 Smoking behaviour
and academic performance 22.
2.1.3 Smoking behaviour and gender 22
2.1.4. Concept of behaviour modification 23
2.1.5 Self-control technique 26
2.1.7 Relapse prevention
therapy (RPT) 36
2.2 Theoretical Framework 49
2.2.1 Theory
of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) 49
2.2.2 Social cognitive theory (SCT) (Bandura,
1986) 50
2.2.3 Relapse
prevention theory by Marlatt and Gordon (1985). 51
2.3
Review of
Empirical Studies 52
2.4 Summary of Review
of Related Literature 65
CHAPTER
3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Design of the Study 67
3.2 Area of the Study 68
3.3 Population of the Study 69
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique 69
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection 70
3.6 Validation of the Instruments 71
3.7 Reliability of the Instruments 71
3.8 Method of Data Collection 72
3. 9 Method of Data Analysis 102
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Result Presentation 103
4.2 Discussion of Findings 110
CHAPTER
5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary 112
5.2 Conclusion 112
5.3
Recommendations 113
5.4 Educational Implications of the Study 113
5.5 Limitations
of the Study 114
5.6 Suggestion for Further Studies 115
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
125
LIST OF TABLES
3.1: 3 x
2 Factorial Matrix 66
3.1: Summary of pre-treatment activities 72
3.3: Summary of Self-control treatment plan 79
3.4: Summary of self-control and relapse
prevention treatment programme 92
4.1: Mean
and standard deviation of the mean difference in the
rate of reduction of
smoking
behaviour between those in self-control group and control at posttest 102
4.2:
t-test analysis of mean difference in
the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour
between those in self-control group
and the control group at posttest 103
4.3:
Mean and standard deviation of the mean difference in the rate of reduction of
smoking
behaviour between those in self-control and relapse prevention therapy
group and
control at posttest 103
4.4:
t-test analysis of mean difference in
the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour
between those in self-control and
relapse prevention therapy group and the
control group at posttest 103
4.5:
Mean and standard deviation of mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking
behaviour between those in self-control group
and self-control and relapse
prevention therapy group at posttest
104
4.6: t-test
analysis of mean difference in the rate of reduction
of smoking behaviour
between those in self-control group
and self-control and relapse prevention
therapy group at posttest 104
4.7: Mean
and standard deviation of the mean difference in the
rate of reduction of
smoking
behaviour between those in self-control group and control group at
follow- up
105
4.8: t test analysis of mean difference in the
rate of reduction of smoking behaviour
between those in self-control
group and control group at follow-up 105
4.9: Mean
and standard deviation of the mean difference in the
rate of reduction of
smoking
behaviour between those in self-control and Relapse Prevention Therapy
group and
control group at follow-up 106
4.10: t test
analysis of mean difference in the rate of reduction
of smoking behaviour
between those in self-control and
Relapse Prevention therapy group and control
group at follow-up 106
4.11: Mean
and standard deviation of the mean difference in the
rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in self-control group and
self-control and Relapse Prevention Therapy group at follow-up 107
4.12: t test
analysis of mean difference in the rate of reduction
of smoking behaviour
between
those in self-control group and self-control and Relapse Prevention 107
therapy
group at follow-up
4.13: Mean and Standard
Deviation in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour
among self-control, self-control and relapse
prevention therapy and control at
follow-up by gender. 108
4.14: Analysis of Variance
on gender differences in the rate of reduction of smoking
behaviour in the self-control group,
self-control and relapse prevention therapy
group and control group at follow-up? 108
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1: A Cognitive Behavioural Model of the Relapse
Process Beginning With
the Exposure to a high risk 47
3.1: Diagrammatic
Representation of Subject Distribution 68
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Tobacco is a herb that belongs to the Nicothmiana genus which has
been smoked, chewed or sniffed for over five hundred years. Tobacco seems to be
one of the world’s foremost drugs that originated from the new world known as
Americas. Human beings have sought for substance that would not only sustain
and protect humanity but would also act on people’s mind to produce various
effects. One of such substance is tobacco.
The intake of tobacco fumes is called smoking. “Smoking is a
practice whereby a substance is scorched and the ensuing smoke inhaled to be
savored and ingested into the bloodstream” (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2010). Eriksen,
Mackay and Ross (2014) enumerated some of the drugs
that could be smoked as marijuana, hashish, cigars, pipe, cigarettes and
others. The cigarettes commonly used by smokers are small tubes of paper
containing tobacco that are refined and smoked by adding any source of fire to
it in order to light it. Some of the brands of cigarette in Nigeria include,
Benson and Hedges (B&H), Rothmans, St. Moritz, Bohem Grip, Aspen Export and
Pall Mall to mention but a few. However, the street names employed so as to
confuse the public by concealing the names are Chocolate, Sticks, Fire and so
forth.
Tobacco
use among young people is a global public health issue (Eriksen et al, 2014). The majority of smokers
started smoking during their youth (Song & Glantz, 2015). The annual tobacco-related deaths estimated
is to escalate from 5 million in 2010 to over 10 million by 2030 (Jha &
Peto, 2014). Tobacco triggered morbidity and
mortality is the most avoidable disease among humans (Fryer, Seaman, Clark, & Plano-Clark,
2017). Consequently, tobacco usage amid young people is a widespread
challenge requiring combined efforts among tobacco control experts to improve
effective prevention, cure, and termination modalities. This study is geared
towards achieving that.
Evidence
from research report high dominance of tobacco usage disorder among University
Undergraduates. The percentage of high school students using any tobacco product remains high
24.6% in 2014 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015), reflecting
the increasing diversity of tobacco product use among adolescents. In addition,
a growing percentage of young adults initiate tobacco use after age 18 and
escalate that use both in frequency and intensity during the young adult years
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). These findings highlight
the need for new approaches to reduce tobacco use during adolescence and the
young adult years and increase efforts to treat those who are addicted to it.
Tobacco
use in Nigeria is not different from the rest of the world. Oyewole, Animasahan
and Chapman (2018) found that prevalence of smoking ranged from 0.2% to 32.5%,
females ranged between 2.2% to 10% while that of males ranged from 1% to 32.5%.
Amorha, Jiburu, Okonta and Nduka (2017) found that 1/5 of undergraduates
surveyed reported having smoked. The incidence of smoking in Nigeria is on the
increase especially among the youth (Emerole, Chineke, Diwe & Onubeze,
2013; Ukwuayi, Eja, & Unwanede, 2012).
Efforts should be made to assist the youths quit smoking for good health
and well-being. Preventing escalation and entrenchment of smoking in the young
adult is critically important to reducing the long term health effect of
smoking.
For accurate classification of individuals who engage in smoking
behaviour, this study will make use of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM 5) criteria for smoking behaviour. Tobacco Use Disorder
classified in the DSM-5 (fifth edition) (APA, 2013). Diagnosis is allocated to
individuals who rely on the drug nicotine due to usage of Tobacco produces. To get an accurate classification of
individuals who engage in smoking behaviour, this study X-rayed the DSM 5
criteria for smoking behaviour.
Substance use disorders comprise a vast
variety of problems emanating from substance use, and cover 11 different
criteria:
1. Consuming the substance in higher amounts
or for longer than you are meant to.
2. Intending to reduce or stop utilising the
substance but not managing to.
3. Expending so much time getting, utilising,
or recovering from utilising the substance.
4. Yearnings and urges to consume the
substance.
5. Not handling ones job at work,
home, or school because of substance usage.
6. Persistent usage, even when it causes
hitches in relationships.
7. Foregoing important social, occupational,
or recreational undertakings because of substance usage.
8. Using substances repeatedly, not minding
putting you in danger.
9. Continuous usage, even when one knows of
impending physical or psychological problem that may be triggered or made worse
by the substance.
10. Craving for more substance to get the
effect you want (tolerance).
11. Exhibiting of withdrawal symptoms, which could
be calmed by taking of the substance the more.
Two criteria have been specified for Tobacco dependence. They are
craving and withdrawal. Tobacco yearning reflects a mindful desire or intention
to use tobacco. Many instances of Tobacco Dependence (TD) consist of craving as
a vital dependence symptom is correlated meaningfully with smoking immensity
and is highly associated with other important features of Tobacco Dependence
(Skinner, 2010). The concern of this study is on those addicted to smoking.
They are smokers who smoke relatively constantly.
There are several factors that influence people to smoking, one of
such is social pressure. Osu and Olunkwa (2010) indicated that people often
start using tobacco to be like someone they admire – a friend, a parent, or a
famous person. Many young people view tobacco usage as a sign of adulthood.
They think that using tobacco will make them appear sophisticated or in control
in social situations. Some teachers, parents, other adult role models use
tobacco. It may seem natural for a teenager to try tobacco products.
Conversely, some children of non–smokers try to show their independence by
smoking. Most young people start to utilise tobacco when it is offered to them
by a friend.
An undergraduate is a student at the university or college who is
studying for his or her first degree. Undergraduate students can be 18 years
and above, but the majority of them are in their late teens and early twenties.
They fall within the adolescence stage of development. The transition from
secondary school to University begins at a time of personal growth accompanied
by normal developmental stressors. Some undergraduates use smoking as a coping
mechanism. Studies have found a high smoking rate among undergraduates
(Karadogan, Onal and Kanbay, 2018). Reports also show that smoking occurrence
upsurges in university students from first year to final year raising serious
concerns about preventative and curative measures ( Abdulsalam & Zhang,
2019).
Peer pressure is a very strong force. If one’s friends use
tobacco, refusing to try it may be difficult. Many young people know the
threats of tobacco usage but they think they will be protected. They also
underestimate the power of tobacco and think they can give it up anytime they
want (Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). It has been observed that much of substance use among youths take
place in schools. The occurrence of smoking amongst students is high. Smoking
among adolescence is almost always a social experience and a learned behaviour.
One of the important psychological phenomena observed during this period of
adolescence is experimentation.
Psychological undertone is another reason why people smoke. Song
and Glantz (2015) point out that those smokers have
feelings that it reduces their boredom and fatigue, enhances pleasure at that
moment and provides a way out from the realities of existence. They added that
they use such smoking activities like; handling the cigarette, cigar or pipe to
enhance self-image, to build self-confidence, to gain approval and acceptance
of one’s peers, to heal psychological hurts that may have to do with coping
with stressful situations and feelings of fear, anger and anxiety. Smokers are
attracted to smoking due to the notion that it reduces stress. Most young
people commence using tobacco as a way of managing stress or uncomfortable
feelings such as depression, anger, frustration, boredom, anxiety and
nervousness.
Unrealistic optimism about the personalized risk of smoking is
another cause why many adolescents may believe that there is no health risks
related to smoking in the first few years, and they believe that they will stop
smoking before any damage is done. Existing evidence suggests that adolescents
and adults exhibit unrealistic optimism about the personalized risk of smoking (Fryer, Seaman, Clark &
Plano-Clark, 2017).
Tobacco
smoking is the leading cause of preventable premature death worldwide. Whereas most
smokers would like to stop, the habitual and addictive nature of smoking makes
cessation difficult (WHO, 2011). According to World Health
Organization, WHO (2011), 3.5 Million lives were lost in 1998 as a result of
smoking. Tobacco smoke is a deadly cocktail of over 4000 chemicals and poisons
including tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide, cyanide and ammonia. The addiction in
smoking has resultant unpleasant effect such as the physical, social,
psychological, neurological and cognitive effects in the human body functioning
of smokers. Smoking harms almost all organs of the body and affects overall
health. These effects, including the physical discomforts are also suffered by
non-smokers. Smoking prematurely ages the skin by between 10 and 20 years and
makes it three times more likely to get facial wrinkling, particularly around
the eyes and mouth. Smoking even gives one a shallow, yellow-grey complexion
and hallows checks, which can cause one to look gaunt (US Department of Health
and Human Services, 2010).
Smoking causes innumerable number of health issues. Osu and
Olunkwa (2010) reported that by smoking, one doubles one’s risk of dying from a
stroke, in addition, one way that smoking can increase one’s risk of stroke is
by increasing one’s chances of developing a brain Aneurysm. This is a swell in
a blood vessel instigated by a flaw in the blood vessel wall. This could break
or spurt which could lead to a tremendously serious condition known as a
subarachnoid haemorrhage, which is a kind of stroke, and could create extensive
brain injury and death. For smokers, according to Tomioka, Sekiya, Nishio and
Ishimoto (2014), smoking termination is the single most significant change they
can make to their behaviour to enhance their life expectancy and quality of
life. Most smokers want to stop smoking but only very few succeed (Pierce,
Cummins, White, Humphrey &Messer, 2012).
Considering the negative effects of smoking as highlighted above,
there is need to identify measures that will assist smokers reduce or totally
abstain from smoking. Smoking behaviour is a learnt response, it can also be
unlearned. One of the behaviour modification techniques that has been effective
in helping individuals change their behaviour is self-control technique. Low
self-control is connected with amplified consumption of alcohol, tobacco, and
unwholesome food (Stautz, Zupan, Field & Marteau,
2018). Self-control in this context is a process
through which an individual becomes the principal agent in guiding, directing
and regulating those features of his own behaviour that might eventually lead
to desired positive consequences (De ridder in Obi, 2015). Self-control is the
characteristic replicating the capability to apply control over one’s emotions,
thoughts, actions and impulses, and prioritizing distal purposes over proximal
reasons (Fujita, 2011). It is the capability for deliberate self-governance
(Duckworth & Kern, 2011). Self-control is equally
linked with a behavioural propensities labelled impulsivity in a person’s differences’
works, explained by the non-reflective collection of stimulus-evoked reactions,
or non-reflective inclination for directly rewarding reactions (Nigg, 2017). The strong cessation goals that characterize smokers
suggest that their attitude represent a self-control problem (Daly, Delaney
& Baumeister, 2015).
Self-control
is one of the most vital human bequests because it permits people to limit
impulsive behaviours. Poor self-control has been established to be connected to
numerous glitches, such as fatness, delinquency, risky sexual behavior, drug
and alcohol usage, together with other negative upshots (Conor, Stein & Longshore, 2009). Equally, high
self-control was established to be connected with better grades, fewer
psychopathology, better relationships, better relational skills, healthier eating
habits, better emotional control, along with other positive outcomes (Lee & Kemmelmeier,
2017).
Self-control is an individual
dissimilarity revealing the capability to exercise control over one’s opinions,
activities, feelings, and desires, and to rank distal reasons above proximal
motives (Fujita, 2011). It
encompasses the capability to modify habitual (or dominant) reactions and to
substitute them with non-dominant reactions to attain lasting goals, standards or
recompenses (Fujita, 2011; Inzlicht,
Schmeichel and Macrae, 2014). That is, it is
the capability for deliberate self-governance (Duckworth and Kern, 2011).
Self-control as a
behaviour modification therapy is a systematic procedural approach involving
mastery of special techniques. Exercise of self-control is a conscious effort
acquired through learning and practice (Moffit & Kern, 2011). The term
self-control had been used variously as; self-regulation, self-discipline,
willpower, inhibitory control, self-esteem strength and proactive control
(Duckworth & Kern, 2011).
Self-reported slight self-control is connected with distinctive and difficult levels of alcohol
usage, enlarged body mass index, and a developed probability of instigating
smoking (Coskunpinar, Dir, & Cyders, 2013).
Gillebaart and De-Ridder (2017) advocate that having abundant self-control is connected
with an improved capability to instigate goal hunt and participate in
goal-oriented behaviour. That is, persons with great self-control are much able
to outline goals, behave in manners that would help attain these goals, and
experience liking from doing so.
To avoid terminological
confusion, it has been suggested to allocate self-control as the intentional,
conscious, effortful subset of self-regulation (Baumeister, Vohs & Tice, in
Obi, 2015). The aptitude of the self to adjust itself by changing or overriding
its prevailing response propensities is known as self-control (Bandura, 2009). Self-control is viewed as standard
about how behaviour should be regulated in a given domain of life (such as
standard for keeping diet, or remaining faithful to one’s romantic partner or
abstinence from smoking). It is a strenuous act that needs our attention and
puts our life discipline or will power to test.
The controlling behaviour
involves implementing self-control tactics in which the precursors and
penalties of the target behaviour or alternative behaviours are adapted. These
tactics make the controlled behaviour (target behaviour) more likely. Self-control
ensues when a person indulge in behaviours at a time to regulate the
manifestation of another (target behaviour) at later time (Liu, Wang, Dou &
Zhang, 2015).One wonders the extent self-control could be effective in cessation
of smoking behaviour among undergraduates in Abia State.
Indulging in addictive behaviour
typically offers instant rewards that increase pleasure and /or decrease pain. That
is, people participate in addictive behaviours to feel good (greater pleasure)
or to feel better (self-medication of pain) though both reasons could exist simultaneously.
The rewards following addictive behaviours serve to sustain their excessive
frequency, intensity, and duration, notwithstanding the deferred negative
consequences which can be pretty serious and long–lasting.
Smoking cessation treatment is
replete with relapse. Relapse prevention (RP)
is a tertiary interference strategy for mitigating the chances and sternness of
relapse ensuing the termination or lessening of difficult behaviours (Hendershot, Witkiewitz, George & Marlatt,
2011). Relapse is a hindrance
that emanates during the behaviour change process, whereby advancement toward
the start or maintenance of a behaviour change goal (for example, abstinence
from smoking) is interjected by a return to the desired behaviour. Relapse is also
seen as a vibrant, continuing process instead of a discrete or mortal event (Kirchner,
Shiffman, & Wileyto, 2011). Relapse Prevention
Therapy (RPT) is suspected to have the
potential of maintaining cessation of smoking behaviour after treatment has
been achieved.
The unrelenting effect of RP is
demonstrated by its incorporation in many cognitive-behavioral substance usage
mediations. Nevertheless, the penchant to incorporate RP inside other handling
modalities has created a barrier to systematic appraisal of the RP model. Generally,
RP remains a prominent cognitive-behavioral outline that could create both
theoretical and clinical methods to understanding and expediting behavior
change (Hendershot
et al, 2011).
Relapse prevention therapy (RPT) utilizes therapeutic strategies
that may be useful for cessation of smoking behaviour. Such strategies include:
coping skills training, relapse road map and lifestyle modification techniques (Hasher
& Sack, 2009). Relapse prevention therapy (RPT)
approaches are now essential to most psychosocial cures for substance usage (Agboola, Coleman, Leonardi-Bee, McEwen, &
McNeill, 2010).
Relapse stands as a
barricade to the cure of addictive behaviors. For instance, 12-month relapse
rates resulting from alcohol or tobacco stoppage attempts, usually from 80-95% (Hendershot
et al, 2011) and evidence recommends comparable relapse
curves across several forms of substance usage (Kirshenbaum, Olsen & Bickel
in Hendersho et al, 2015)). Averting relapse or abating its magnitude is thus a
precondition for any effort to enhance successful, lasting modifications in
addictive behaviours.
Relapse
prevention Therapy (RPT) is an intervention strategy, at tertiary level, for
decreasing the possibility and sternness of relapse following the termination
or lessening of problematic behaviours. Studies revealed that smoking behaviour can be managed
effectively with self-control techniques and relapse prevention therapy (Muraven,
2010). In view of the pernicious consequences of smoking to smokers and those
around them and the positive effects of quitting, it is expedient to work out
modalities that could be used to proactively assist smokers to reduce or quit
smoking. It is on this note that the researcher intends to investigate the
effectiveness of self-control techniques and relapse prevention therapy in the
cessation of smoking behaviour among undergraduates in Abia State.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Universities are citadels of learning where undergraduates acquire
knowledge and skills to become productive members of the society. This is to
enable them to contribute meaningfully to national development. However,
certain behaviour deficits like smoking could hamper the actualization of such
goals. Research indicates that a number of students engage in smoking behaviour
in our tertiary institutions. Smoking has been noted to be associated with
cancer, asthma, heart disease and most importantly, smoking affects the
self-esteem and academic performance of smokers. A report given by Onu and Olunkwa
(2010) showed the prevalence of smoking for Nigerian adolescents of age 18 – 25
(undergraduates fall within this age bracket) as 25% and 17% for adolescents
and adolescent at puberty stage, respectively. Despite the efforts of Government
to reduce smoking among undergraduates, it has continued to be on the increase.
Behaviour modification techniques could be utilized to assist undergraduates to
handle their smoking behaviour. The burden of this research is to investigate
the effectiveness of Self-Control Techniques and Relapse Prevention Therapy in
the reduction of smoking behaviour among undergraduates in Abia State. The
problem of this study put in a question form is: How Self-Control Technique and Relapse Prevention
Therapy and combination of smoking behaviour among undergraduates in Abia State?
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the
effectiveness of Self-Control Techniques and Relapse prevention therapy on cessation
of smoking behaviour among University undergraduates in Abia State, Nigeria.
Specifically, the study sought to:
1)
determine the
rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those exposed to self-control techniques and the control at
post-test.
2)
determine the
rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those exposed to self-control
techniques and relapse prevention therapy and the control at post-test
3)
determine if
there is a difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between
those in the self-control group and self-control and relapse prevention therapy
at posttest.
4)
ascertain if
there is a difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between
those in the self-control group and
control group at follow -up.
5)
determine if
there is difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those
in self-control and relapse prevention therapy and control at follow-up.
6)
determine if
there is difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those
in self-control and self-control relapse prevention therapy at follow-up.
7)
determine if
there is a difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between
those in the self-control and relapse prevention therapy and control by gender.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The findings of this study when published have both theoretical
and practical significance. The findings of this study will authenticate the
basic assumptions of the theories that underpinned this study. Specifically,
self-control and relapse prevention theories will be further validated by the
findings of this study. The findings of this study also have practical
significance. The findings would be beneficial to: smokers, students,
counsellors, parents, health workers, the society and researchers when
published. The findings of the study may help to restore lost moral standard
and social status of undergraduates. The findings of the study may reveal to
smokers the dangers and health risks associated with smoking. It may also serve
as guide for prevention of students from smoking behaviour. It will also help
the smokers attribute failures in stopping smoking to lack of skills and
commitment to stopping smoking behaviour and not lack of will power.
The findings of the study
may also help school counsellors and clinical psychologists with valuable
information to assist youths to handle their smoking challenges. This will help
school counsellors and clinical psychologists to utilize the relevant behaviour
modification techniques to assist youths with smoking behaviour. The findings
of this study equally will guide the Guidance counsellors, educational psychologists,
social workers and others within the helping profession to get relevant and
well-defined information on the efficacy of self-control techniques and relapse
prevention therapy in stopping smoking behaviour. This in turn will serve as a
guide to the university counsellors to understand how effective self-control
and relapse prevention therapy may be in reduction of smoking behaviour. It
will motivate them to utilize these techniques to assist other youths to quit
smoking. It will also create more awareness on useful intervention strategies
and professional development programmes on ways to prevent or stop smoking
behaviour among undergraduate students and other smokers.
The findings of the study
would be of benefit to medical doctors, health workers, even Ministry of Health
to create more awareness to the general public on dangers of cigarette smoking
and the likelihood that smokers could quit smoking with psychological
interventions. The findings of the study may also provide them with well-defined
information on the usefulness of self-control techniques and relapse prevention
therapy in reducing smoking behaviour. They may want to refer smokers to
professional counsellors for remediation.
Finally, the findings of the study when completed and disseminated
will inform the researchers on the effects of self-control and relapse
prevention therapy in reducing smoking behaviour. The findings of the study may
serve as springboard for future researchers who may wish to carry out a study
on the same variables or related ones.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions will guide the study.
i.
What is the mean
difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in
self-control group and control at post-test?
ii.
What is the
mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in Self-control
and Relapse Prevention therapy group and control at posttest?
iii.
What is the
mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in
the self-control group and self-control and relapse prevention therapy at
post-test?
iv.
What is the
mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in
the self-control group and control at follow-up?
v.
What is the
mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in
the self-control and relapse prevention therapy and control at follow-up?
vi.
What is the
mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in
self-control and self-control and relapse prevention therapy at follow-up?
vii. What
is the mean difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in self-control and
self-control and relapse prevention therapy at follow-up by gender?
1.6 HYPOTHESES
The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study
and will be tested at 0.05 level of significance.
H01: There is no significant mean difference in
the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in the self-control and
control group posttest?
H02: There is no significant mean difference in
the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in the self-control
and Relapse Prevention Therapy group and control at posttest.
H03: The mean score difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour
between those in the Self Control group and Self control and Relapse prevention
therapy do not differ significantly at posttest?
HO4: There is no significant mean difference in
the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour between those in the self-control and
control group at follow-up?
HO5: The mean score difference in the rate of reduction
of smoking behaviour between those in the self-control and the self-control and
relapse prevention therapy group do not differ significantly at follow-up?
HO6: There is no significant difference in the
rate of reduction of smoking behaviour in the self-control and the self-control
and relapse prevention therapy group at follow-up?
Ho7 : There
is no significant gender difference in the rate of reduction of smoking behaviour
in the self-control and the self-control and relapse prevention therapy group
and control group at follow-up?
1.7
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study was delimited to undergraduates with smoking behaviour
in Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike and Abia State University,
Uturu, all in Abia State. The study focuses on the establishing the effects of
Self-Control Techniques and Relapse Prevention Therapy on smoking behaviours
among university undergraduates in Abia State, Nigeria. The self-control
techniques used include self-control, self-evaluation, orientation for change,
behavioural contracts, modification of the environment, tasks and assignment
and self-reinforcement; while RPT used in this study include coping skills
training, relapse road map and lifestyle modification techniques. Smoking
behaviour is defined according to the DSM-5 criteria for smoking behaviour disorder. Gender was used as a moderator variable and it means male and
female between the ages of 18 – 25
years.
Click “DOWNLOAD NOW” below to get the complete Projects
FOR QUICK HELP CHAT WITH US NOW!
+(234) 0814 780 1594
Login To Comment