TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of Contents vi
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the
Study 1
1.2 Statement of the
Problem 7
1.3 Purpose of the
Study 7
1.4 Research Questions 8
1.5 Research Hypotheses 9
1.6 Significance of the
Study 9
1.7 Scope of the Study 10
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms 11
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 The
Concept of Self Efficacy 13
2.2 Factors
Affecting Self-Efficacy 19
2.3 Improving
Self Efficacy 24
2.4 Classroom
Interventions for Self-Efficacy 26
2.5 Self-Efficacy and Commitment 27
2.6 Relationship
Between Self Efficacy for Learning and
Employment in Regular and Sandwich
Students of Primary
Education Studies 64
2.7 Theoretical
Framework 68
2.8 Summary of
Reviewed Literature 73
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design 75
3.2 Population of the
Study 75
3.3 Sample and Sampling
Techniques 76
3.4 Research Instrument 76
3.5 Validity of the
Research Instrument 77
3.6 Reliability of Instrument 77
3.7 Procedure for Data Collection 78
3.8 Data Analysis
Techniques 78
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND INTERRELATION
4.1 Descriptive
Analysis of Respondents 79
4.2 Answering Research
Questions 80
4.3 Summary of Findings 84
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion of the
Findings 86
5.2 Conclusion 87
5.3 Recommendations 88
5.4 Suggestions for
Further Studies 89
Reference 90
Appendix 95
ABSTRACT
This study assessed the self-efficacy for learning
and for employment between regular and sandwich students of primary education
studies. The study found out whether self-efficacy for learning
and for employment depends of students’ programme of study. This study employed descriptive survey research design. The
population of the study consists all regular and sandwich students of the University of Ilorin,
Ilorin, Nigeria. A simple random sampling
method was used to select 100 students across all the departments. A researcher’s designed questionnaire was used to elicit
information on students’ self-efficacy for learning and employment. Descriptive
statistics of percentage and inferential statistics of t-test were used for
data analysis. Findings from the study revealed that the level of self-efficacy for learning and for employment
among regular and sandwich students was high on majority; and
that there was significant difference between the self-efficacy for learning among regular and
sandwich students in favour of regular students. It was
therefore recommended that both regular and sandwich students should be given
opportunity to practice what they are studying while still in school; sandwich
students should be sensitized on the need to have confidence in their learning
ability; and that regular students should be orientated on the need to have
high level of self-efficacy towards employment.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
to the Study
Self-efficacy
has been defined as “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute a
course of action required to produce given attainments”. This differs from mere
confidence by its emphasis on undertaking a course of action, as compared to
simply holding an opinion or belief. In an educational setting, this definition
was refined further to include the belief in one’s capabilities to successfully
complete assigned academic tasks.
Academic
self-efficacy has been extensively studied as a variable in student learning. A
meta-analysis investigating the relationship between academic self-efficacy and
achievements showed that increased academic self-efficacy made a positive
contribution to academic performance. In addition to its influences on learning
and performance, academic self-efficacy can affect learning strategies,
specifically self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learning, which includes
self-monitoring, self-evaluation, goal setting, and planning, contributes positively
to academic achievement.
While many
variables affect a person’s self-efficacy, four broad categories contribute
most to its development. The first of these categories, past experience with a
given task, plays an important role in the development of one’s belief that one
could succeed at that task in the future. Secondly, present-day experiences,
whether vicarious, in which the individual either observes or indirectly
participates in the task, or mastery, in which the individual is a direct
participant in the task, contribute to self-efficacy. The third category
contributing to the development of self-efficacy is verbal persuasion, which
emphasizes the role of teachers in cultivating the academic self-efficacy of
their students. Lastly, biochemical changes (e.g. emotional responses) occur
within the brain when one succeeds at a task, and this physiological arousal
has been shown to contribute to the development of self-efficacy.
Perceived
self-efficacy is concerned with people’s beliefs in their capabilities to
produce desired outcomes (Bandura, 1997). People differ in the areas in which
they develop their efficacy and the levels at which they develop it, even
within their given pursuits. Thus, the efficacy beliefs system is not a global
trait, but a differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of
functioning.
In
academic and learning settings, Niemivirta and Tapola (2007) opined that
self-efficacy has bearing on both the level and type of goals people decide to
strive for. It therefore follows that students’ self-efficacy beliefs consist
of their belief to perform given academic tasks at designated levels. And the
perceived academic self-efficacy as defined by Bandura is a personal judgment
of one’s capacity to organize and execute courses of action to attain
designated types of educational performance. Hence, students’ belief in their
efficacy to regulate their own learning and to master academic activities
determines their aspirations, level of motivation and academic accomplishment.
Self-efficacy, trusting one’s abilities and powers for learning and
performance, is a key trait for the academic success of university students (Hill,
2002). It is on this basis that Martinez-Pons (2002) classified self-efficacy
into categories, one of which is academic self-efficacy and states that it
reflects a student’s perceived capability with respect to the tasks a student
is expected to perform in academic domain.
Apart
from self-efficacy for learning, sandwich students are expected to have
self-efficacy for employment. Self-efficacy for employment is one’s belief
about his ability to work and face different employment demands. Research has
shown the power of efficacy beliefs in different domains, for example, as a
mechanism to face situations of occupational stress. For instance, it has been
found that self-efficacy may act as a buffer in the presence of work stressors
so that their negative impact is reduced (Grau, Salanova, & Peiró, 2000;
Salanova, Peiró, & Schaufeli, 2002). Workers with higher levels of
self-efficacy will not perceive demands as threats, but as opportunities to
overcome and develop their skills; they will strive to obtain good results, and
achievements will be interpreted as a result of their own effort (Bandura,
2002).
Efficacy
beliefs influence the courses of action people choose to pursue, the challenges
and goals they set for themselves and their commitment to them, how much effort
they invest in given endeavours, the outcome they expect their efforts to
produce, how long they persevere when faced with obstacles, their resilience to
adversity, the quality of their emotional life, how much stress and depression
they experience in co- ping with taxing environmental demands, the life choices
they make and their accomplishments. For all these reasons it is important to
take into account the construction workers’ levels of self-efficacy to
understand their behaviour and their consequences (i.e., negligence and
occupational accidents, as well as excellent performance at work).
Self-efficacy for employment is a necessity for both sandwich and regular
student.
The double-edged need
to increase access to higher education and generate much needed revenue has
informed the intent, development, and ultimately the introduction of current
part-time programmes of study offered by Nigeria’s university system. According
to Obemeata (1999) and Afe (1999) the expansion of part-time programmes must
aim to accommodate both students seeking a university degree, as well as
provide on-the-job training opportunities for those individuals who require new
skills and/ or academic upgrading. In chronicling the relevance of outreach
part-time programmes, Akintayo (1990) concluded that due to under-utilization
of resources (physical capacity), coupled with increasing student demand for
access to higher education opportunities, university’s must implement outreach
programmes to address growing demand.
Part-time
study comes in different forms one of which is sandwich programme. Sandwich
study programme is a form of Adult education which United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2006) described as “the entire
body of organized educational processes, whatever the content, level, method
whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges and
universities as well as in apprenticeship”. Thus, persons regarded as adults by
society to which they belong develop their technical or professional skills and
bring about changes in their attitudes or behaviours in two-fold perspective of
full personal development and participation in balanced and independent social,
economic and cultural development.
The
sandwich and part-time degree programmes represent one of the last available
opportunities or chances for becoming university graduates in Nigeria. This is
because there are so many people who are also capable of learning but
inadequately or deliberately were not opportune to do so because of certain
reasons. Psychologically, it can be accepted that people who are mature and
socially responsible and economically viable, technically qualified and
mentally sound, may be considered as the beneficiaries of Sandwich Degree
Programme or Course (Akinade, 2007).
Another
form of studentship is the full-time students. Full-time students are students
who are enrolled or accepted on regular academic basis for the purpose of
obtaining educational credential offered by the institution. Contrary to the
part-time students, the regular students are expected to be in the school
always for the period of their academic activities, except on holidays. Whether
full-time or part-time, students are expected to have a considerable level of
belief in their learning and employability skills.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The concept of self-efficacy being a very important tool in
the learning and employment sector is indeed a field to study. Having being
defined earlier as the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute a
course of action required to produce given attainments, it is evident that it
is a concept to be examined in the context of higher institution education.
Nationwide, there has been a recurring trend of higher
institutions churning out half baked graduates which cannot fit in to the
labour market as employers find it hard to recruit these individuals. However,
one must not forget that in order to track the underlying reason for this
issue, we would end up at the concept of self efficacy.
Indeed there is an increasing need for the concept of self efficacy
to be examined amongst Nigerian students so as to curb the incidence of poor
quality of graduating students in higher institutions. For the purpose of this
study, the population would be limited to the sandwich and regular students of
primary education studies.
1.3 Purpose
of the Study
The purpose of the study is to assess the self-efficacy for
learning and for employment between regular and sandwich students of primary
education studies. Specifically, the study seeks to:
1.
Find
out the self-efficacy for learning among regular and sandwich students.
2.
Find
out the self-efficacy for employment among regular and sandwich students.
3.
Find
out if there is significant difference between the self-efficacy for learning
among regular and sandwich students.
4.
Find
out if there is significant difference between the self-efficacy for employment
among regular and sandwich students.
1.4 Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to streamline
the conduct of the study:
1.
What
is the level of self-efficacy for learning among regular and sandwich students?
2.
What
is the level of self-efficacy for employment among regular and sandwich
students?
1.5 Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses will
be tested in the study.
1.
There
is no significant difference between the self-efficacy for learning among
regular and sandwich students
2.
There
is no significant difference between the self-efficacy for employment among
regular and sandwich students.
1.6 Significance
of the Study
The
outcome of this study will be of immense benefit to lecturers, school
administrators, school counselors, students and other members of the public who
may come across the result of the study. The research findings might be of
great help to the government and other stakeholders by revealing the self-efficacy for learning and for
employment between regular and sandwich students. This may probably guide the
employers of labour on the belief of the students about their efficacy towards
learning and work. The findings of this study might also be useful to
stakeholders in education in establishing areas that have knowledge and skill
gap in relation to human resource recruitment, as this study will throw more
light into the self-efficacy
for learning and for employment of regular and sandwich students.
This
study will also show the difference between the self-efficacy for learning and for employment between
regular and sandwich students. As such, it is hoped that the result of the
study might be of great help to lecturers and school administrators by making
them aware of the type of students with highest level of self-efficacy for learning and for
employment between regular and sandwich students.
Finally,
the findings of this study might be of great importance to those that will want
to further research in areas relating to self-efficacy for learning and for employment between
regular and sandwich students. The result might be a reliable source of
information for intending researchers.
1.7 Scope
of the Study
The study focused on self-efficacy
and its relationship and effects on learning and employment for both regular
and sandwich students of primary education studies. It spreads across other
relatable constructs which encompass levels of self-efficacy, factors affecting
self-efficacy and the likes. Data for the study is generated from both regular
and sandwich students of primary education studies.
1.8 Operational
Definition of Terms
Self-Efficacy: Bandura
(1997) defines self-efficacy as one’s beliefs in one’s aptitudes or abilities
to execute the necessary actions required to successfully complete forthcoming
tasks or behaviors.
Learning: The
acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught.
Employment: The
state of having paid work.
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