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ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF MERNYANG HILL SETTLEMENTS OF THE SOUTHERN JOS PLATEAU, NIGERIA

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 Abstract


This work entails an archaeological study of five hill settlements occupied by the Mernyang ethnic group in the southern part of the Jos Plateau. The research area was chosen because the Jos Plateau region especially its northern part, presents evidence for a very long period of human antiquity, however for the Qua‟anpan area in the south which had attracted the attention of anthropologists, not much archaeological research has been conducted. Therefore, the researcher saw the need to conduct an archaeological study of this area in order to provide a comprehensive picture of the history of the people of the Jos Plateau and to provide a reference material for subsequent cultural researches. 

This research was carried out with the aim of understanding the cultural characteristics of the past inhabitants of the area. This was achieved by the review of literatures on the Jos Plateau and the site in particular, collection of oral histories, study of material cultures, archaeological survey and mapping of abandoned areas using the GIS of  Kofyar, Lardang, Bong, Zuwakal and Mer hill settlements. The use of contextual archaeology was employed during the survey, collection of data and analysis of materials, while human adaptation theory of cultural ecology was applied in the interpretation of data. 

Material evidence of past human activities revealed during the survey of five Mernyang hill settlements include house foundations, graves, farm terraces, ritual areas, lower grinding stones and hollowed rocks; monolith, partially buried pots and whetstones. Analysis of data reveal similarities in pattern of compounds, types of pottery based on form and decorative motifs, terrace farming and ritual system in all the five sites which suggest that the past occupants of the area may have belonged to the same cultural group.

Through this research, the distribution of past human activities on the landscape which was determined by land, labour, water and security were revealed. Other adaptive strategies such as the intensive agricultural system of the Mernyang people using terraces and crop rotation and the practice of African traditional religion were revealed.





 

Table of Contents

Title Page ........................................................................................................................................ i

Title Page ...................................................................................................................................... iii

Declaration.................................................................................................................................... iv

Certification ................................................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... vi 

Abstract 

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ vii

List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. xiii

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xiv

List of Plates ............................................................................................................................... xvi

Appendices ................................................................................................................................... xx 

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1

1.1   Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1

1.2    Statement of Research Problem .................................................................................... 5

1.3   Scope of the Research .................................................................................................... 6

1.4  Justification of the Research ......................................................................................... 7

1.5  Significance of the Research .......................................................................................... 8

1.6 Aim and Objectives of the Research ............................................................................. 9

1.7  Methods of Research ...................................................................................................... 9

1.7.1  Oral tradition .................................................................................................................... 9

1.7.2   Written sources ............................................................................................................... 10

1.7.3  Archaeological survey .................................................................................................... 11

1.7.4 Ethnographic survey ....................................................................................................... 13 

CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 14

2.1   Environmental Background ........................................................................................ 14

2.1.1   Location .......................................................................................................................... 14

2.1.2  Climate ........................................................................................................................... 17

2.1.3    Geology and soil............................................................................................................. 18

2.1.4   Vegetation ...................................................................................................................... 19

2.1.5    Relief .............................................................................................................................. 20

2.1.6  Drainage ......................................................................................................................... 21

2.1.7  Settlements ..................................................................................................................... 24

2.2   Economic Activities ..................................................................................................... 25

2.3  Historical Background ................................................................................................. 26

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 31

3.1 Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 31 3.2 

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 43

4.1  Archaeological Survey ................................................................................................. 43

4.1.1   Site A (Kofyar) ............................................................................................................... 44

4.1.1.1 Kop Dagarnaan (Compound 1) ........................................................................................ 44

4.1.1.2 Kop Tupyil Paya (Compound 2) ....................................................................................... 50

4.1.1.3 Kop Tupmang (Compound 3) ........................................................................................... 51

4.1.1.4 Kop Gwa (Compound 4) ................................................................................................... 57

4.1.1.5 Kop Datugus (Compound 5) ............................................................................................. 59

4.1.1.6 Kop Daduut (Compound 6) ............................................................................................... 63

4.1.1.8 Kop Dafyel (Compound 7) ................................................................................................ 65

4.1.1.7 Kop Dajak (Compound 8) ................................................................................................. 67

4.1.1.9 Kop Dachil (Compound 9) ................................................................................................ 70

4.1.2 Site B (Lardang) ............................................................................................................. 70

4.1.2.1 Kop Dafuwup (Compound 1b) .......................................................................................... 72

4.1.2.2 Kop Damulak (Compound 2b) .......................................................................................... 74

4.1.2.3 Kop Dajin (Compound 3b)................................................................................................ 75

4.1.2.4 Kop Dabok (Compound 4b) .............................................................................................. 77

4.1.2.5 Kop Dachian (Compound 5b) ........................................................................................... 78

4.1.3  Site C (Bong) .................................................................................................................. 80

4.1.3.1 Kop Kyemtu (Compound 1c) ............................................................................................. 80

4.1.3.2 Kop Dashe (Compound 2c) ............................................................................................... 83

4.1.3.3 Kop Long (Compound 3c) ................................................................................................. 83

4.1.3.4 Kop Dielpet (Compound 4c) ............................................................................................. 87

4.1.4  Site D (Zuwakal) ............................................................................................................ 88

4.1.4.1 Kop Noegon (Compound 1d) ............................................................................................ 90

4.1.4.2 Kop Yilnuang (Compound 2d) .......................................................................................... 92

4.1.5  Site E (Mer) .................................................................................................................... 94

4.1.5.1 Kop Dokmuut .................................................................................................................... 96

4.2 Ethnographic Survey ................................................................................................... 97

4.2.1  Pottery making ............................................................................................................... 98

4.2.2  Architecture .................................................................................................................. 105

4.2.3   Burial system ................................................................................................................ 107

4.2.4   Farming system ............................................................................................................ 108

3.2.5 Ritual system ................................................................................................................ 112 

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................... 115

5.1  Classification and Analysis of Pottery ...................................................................... 116

5.1.1 Pottery analysis based on vessel forms ........................................................................ 116

5.1.1.1  Classification based on base form ............................................................................ 117

5.1.1.2   Classification based on rim form.............................................................................. 120

5.1.2  Pottery analysis based on fabric ................................................................................... 126

5.1.3 Pottery analysis based on decorative motif .................................................................. 127

5.1.3.1  Single decorative motif ............................................................................................. 127

5.1.3.2  Multiple decorative motif .......................................................................................... 131

5.2 Classification and Analysis of Stone Objects ........................................................... 135

5.3 Classification and Analysis of Metal Objects .......................................................... 135

5.4  Interpretation of Data ................................................................................................ 136

5.4.1  Hearth ........................................................................................................................... 137

5.4.2 House foundations ........................................................................................................ 137

5.4.3   Animal pens.................................................................................................................. 138

5.4.4 Graves........................................................................................................................... 139

5.4.5 Farm terraces ................................................................................................................ 139

5.4.6   Monolith ....................................................................................................................... 140

5.4.7 Ritual areas ................................................................................................................... 141

5.4.8 Sitting arrangements ..................................................................................................... 141

5.4.9 Partially buried pots ..................................................................................................... 142

5.4.10  Lower grinding stones .................................................................................................. 142

5.4.11  Hollowed rocks ............................................................................................................ 143

5.4.3   Surface collections ....................................................................................................... 143

5.6  Interrelationship between the settlements ............................................................... 149

5.6   Discussion .................................................................................................................... 152

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 

6.1   Summary ..................................................................................................................... 156

6.2    CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 157

6.3   RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................... 158

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 161

APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 165

             




List of Tables

Table 1: The Surface Collections ................................................................................................ 115

Table 2: Summary of Vessel Parts .............................................................................................. 116

Table 3: Summary of Base Form ................................................................................................ 117

Table 4: Summary of Rim Form ................................................................................................. 121

Table 5: Summary of Paste Characteristics ................................................................................ 127

Table 6: Summary of Single Decoration .................................................................................... 131

Table 7: Summary of Multiple Decorations ............................................................................... 134

Table 8: Summary of Surveyed Features .................................................................................... 150




             

List of Figures

Figure 1: Map of Ethnic Groups in Plateau .................................................................................... 3

Figure 2: Map of Mernyang and Surrounding Settlements ............................................................ 4

Figure 3: Map of the Study Area .................................................................................................. 16

Figure 4: The Study area on the Vegetation Map of Nigeria ........................................................ 21

Figure 5: Drainage System of the Mernyang Area ....................................................................... 23

Figure 6: Map of Kop Dagarnaan ................................................................................................. 45

Figure 7: Map of Kop Tupyil Paya ............................................................................................... 49

Figure 8: Map of Kop Tupmang and Kop Gwa ............................................................................ 53

Figure 9: Map of Kop Datugus ..................................................................................................... 60

Figure 10: Map of Kop Daduut and Kop Dafyel .......................................................................... 64

Figure 11: Map of Kop Dajak and Kop Dachil............................................................................. 69

Figure 12: Kop Dafuwup, Kop Damulak and Kop Dabok ........................................................... 71

Figure 13: Map of Kop Dajin and Kop Dabok .............................................................................. 76

Figure 14: Map of Kop Dachian ................................................................................................... 79

Figure 15: Kop Kyemtu and Kop Dashe....................................................................................... 82

Figure 16: Map of Kop Long and Kop Dielpet............................................................................. 84

Figure 17: Site Map of Zuwakal ................................................................................................... 89

Figure 18: Site Map of Mer .......................................................................................................... 95

Figure 19: Map representing the Summary of Surveyed Areas .................................................. 114

Figure 20: Form 1 ....................................................................................................................... 122

Figure 21: Form 2 ....................................................................................................................... 122

Figure 22: Form 3 ....................................................................................................................... 123 

Figure 23: Form 4 ....................................................................................................................... 124

Figure 24: Form B1 ..................................................................................................................... 125

Figure 25: Interrelationship of Features from Surveyed Sites .................................................... 151

             






List of Plates

Plate I: Boebuut Spring ................................................................................................................. 22

Plate II: Hearth .............................................................................................................................. 46

Plate III: Animal Pen .................................................................................................................... 47

Plate IV: Lower Grinding Stone ................................................................................................... 47

Plate V: Sitting arrangement ......................................................................................................... 48

Plate VI: Ritual Area ..................................................................................................................... 51

Plate VII: House Foundation with partially buried pots inside..................................................... 52

Plate VIII: Animal Pen.................................................................................................................. 54

Plate IX: Whetstone/Seat of Coronation ....................................................................................... 55

Plate X: Graves 2 and 3 ................................................................................................................ 56

Plate XI: Ritual Pot with Punctate Decorative Motif.................................................................... 57

Plate XII: Animal Pen ................................................................................................................... 58

Plate XIII: House foundation containing lower grinding stone .................................................... 58

Plate XIV: Lower Grinding Stone ................................................................................................ 59

Plate XV: Monolith ....................................................................................................................... 61

Plate XVI: House Remains ........................................................................................................... 62

Plate XVII: Partially Buried Pot ................................................................................................... 62

Plate XVIII: Collapsed Grave ....................................................................................................... 63

Plate XIX: Animal Pen ................................................................................................................. 66

Plate XX: Graves 1 and 2.............................................................................................................. 67

Plate XXI: Farm Terrace ............................................................................................................... 67

Plate XXII: House Foundation with Partially Buried pot and Lower Grinding Stone ................. 68 

Plate XXIII: Cluster of Graves ..................................................................................................... 72

Plate XXIV: Animal Pen .............................................................................................................. 73

Plate XXV: House Remain ........................................................................................................... 74

Plate XXVI: Partially Buried Pots in a House Foundation ........................................................... 75

Plate XXVII: House Remain 1 ..................................................................................................... 77

Plate XXVIII: Animal Pen ............................................................................................................ 81

Plate XXIX: Kop Dashe................................................................................................................ 83

Plate XXX: Meeting Arena ........................................................................................................... 85

Plate XXXI: Ritual Granary.......................................................................................................... 86

Plate XXXII: Chief‟s Court .......................................................................................................... 86

Plate XXXIII: Meeting Arena ....................................................................................................... 87

Plate XXXIV: Grave ..................................................................................................................... 88

Plate XXXV: House Remains ....................................................................................................... 90

Plate XXXVI: Animal pen ............................................................................................................ 91

Plate XXXVII: Grave 1 ................................................................................................................ 91

Plate XXXVIII: Ritual Stone (Pangtok) ....................................................................................... 92

Plate XXXIX: Ritual Area ............................................................................................................ 93

Plate XL: Sacred Grove ................................................................................................................ 94

Plate XLI: Hollowed Rock ............................................................................................................ 97

Plate XLII: The Potter Forming the Vessel .................................................................................. 99

Plate XLIII: Potter Forming the Vessel ...................................................................................... 100

Plate XLIV: Potter Achieving the Thumb Impression on the Vessel ......................................... 101

Plate XLV: First Stage of Rim Formation using a Leaf ............................................................. 101 

Plate XLVI: Final stage of Rim Formation................................................................................. 102

Plate XLVII: Vessel Prepared for Firing .................................................................................... 103

Plate XLVIII: Finished Vessels .................................................................................................. 103

Plate XLIX: Pottery Wares and Modern Vessels in a Lardang Kitchen..................................... 104

Plate L: Beer jar positioned in a Rock Hollow ........................................................................... 105

Plate LI: Mernyang Hill Compound ........................................................................................... 106

Plate LII: Round hut built with Stones and Mud ........................................................................ 106

Plate LIII: Mernyang Granary 1 ................................................................................................. 107

Plate LIV: Mernyang Granary 2 ................................................................................................. 107

Plate LV: Mernyang Burial System ............................................................................................ 108

Plate LVI: Mernyang Farm Terrace in Lardang ......................................................................... 110

Plate LVII: Mernyang Animal Pen ............................................................................................. 110

Plate LVIII: Hollowed Rock used as Animal trough in the Mernyang Area .............................. 111

Plate LIX: Hollowed Rocks used as Feeding Troughs ............................................................... 111

Plate LX: Mernyang Poultry Barn .............................................................................................. 112

Plate LXI: Ritual Stone Arrangement ......................................................................................... 113

Plate LXII: Base 1 (Flat Base) .................................................................................................... 118

Plate LXIII: Base 1 (complete vessel) ........................................................................................ 118

Plate LXIV: Base 2 (Round Base) .............................................................................................. 119

Plate LXV: Base 3 (Spherical Base) ........................................................................................... 119

Plate LXVI:  Type A (Horizontal Grooves) ............................................................................... 128

Plate LXVII: Type B (Wavy line Groove) ................................................................................. 129

Plate LXVIII: Type C (Herringbone Groove) ............................................................................ 129 

Plate LXIX: Cord Roulette ......................................................................................................... 130

Plate LXX: Thumb Impression ................................................................................................... 131

Plate LXXI: Cord roulette with Grooves .................................................................................... 132

Plate LXXII: Cord roulette/ groove/ thumb impression/cuneiform stamping ............................ 133

Plate LXXIII: Notchings and Grooves ....................................................................................... 133

Plate LXXIV: Thumb Impression and Seriation ........................................................................ 134

Plate LXXV: Ground Stone Axe ................................................................................................ 135

Plate LXXVI: Metal Object ........................................................................................................ 135

             





Appendices

Appendix A: List of Informants .................................................................................................. 164

Appendix B: List of GPS Coordinates ........................................................................................ 165

Appendix C: Questions Guide .................................................................................................... 173  







 

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1         Introduction

On the southern escarpment of the Jos Plateau of Nigeria are a number of hills located in parts of Mangu, Bokkos and Pankshin Local Government Areas. Some of these hills are home to the Mernyang speaking group who are referred to as the “Mirriam” by the Hausas or Mirniyang in some literatures, for example in Ames (1934). The Mernyang area, although located in

Qua‟anpan Local Government Area (L.G.A.), its northernmost end is linked up to the hills that stretch to the Ron-Kulere, Mangu and Pankshin areas. The people are usually classified with

Angas, Sura, Berom and other Plateau peoples as “hill pagans” and further referred to as Kwaklak, Doemak and Mirriam in ethnographic notes (Netting, 1968) but it is worth noting that they are a distinct ethnic group. 

The research area can be accessed by a road branching off the main Jos-Shendam road at

Dokan Tofa and crossing the bridge over a tributary of the River Shemankar. This road joins the Mernyang area at Dokan Kasuwa and there connects with a north-south road along the foot of the hills linking Kwang, Kwa and Doemak towns. An alternative new road connecting to the

Mernyang area branches off the Jos-Shendam road at Jibam junction in Chip which goes into Dokan-Kasuwa and joins the north-south road into the Mernyang hill settlements from Kwa town. From Kwa market, an untarred road links to all the hill settlements except Kofyar hill where only footpaths are used to access it. Lardang is the first hill village from Kwa, then

Kwanoeng, Zuwakal and Bong.

Mernyang is one of many ethnic groups in Qua‟anpan LGA of Plateau State who are sometimes classified as Kofyar or part of “Kofyar federated groups” (Netting 1968; Walu 1991). Others include Doemak, Kwaklak, Bwal, Goemai and Doka (see fig. 1). The Mernyang ethnic group is also found in Jepal district of Mangu LGA of Plateau State. They are famously known as hill settlers by other ethnic groups like the Goemai on the plains. The Mernyang area constitutes a range of hills separated by streams and valleys, all the settlements on these hills and some surrounding plains claim the Kofyar hill as their ancestral home and they speak a common language-Mernyang.

Linguistically, Mernyang belongs to the Chadic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family; it includes the dialects of plain villages of Kwa, Kwang and Miket and by extension the hill villages of Kofyar, Lardang, Bogolong and Zuwakal. Their Goemai neighbours refer to their dialect as lifwo pang (the hill speech) but the people themselves refer to their own dialect as lifwo lu mu (speech of our home). They are aware of variations in dialects which consist of vocabulary differences and slight changes in the quality of some vowels. For example, “the people of Bong have a small but perceptible difference in dialect from Kofyar village three miles to the east and a slightly larger difference from Latok three miles to the south” (Netting 1968; 36). Other minor but constant differences are found in the northern villages yet all these groups occupy a continuous hill tract and have a long history of intermarriage (Netting 1968).

 It is of great importance therefore that all the fifteen hill settlements of the Mernyang area which have so far been identified as Kofyar, Longsel, Dung, Bong, Bongolong, Zuwakal, Koepal, Kofyar, Kopfuboem, Pangkrum, Male, Buumdagas, Wudai, Kook (see fig. 2) as well as Lardang be properly studied archaeologically in order to establish possible relationships between them.

 

Figure 1: Map of Ethnic Groups in Plateau

Source: Netting (1968) and modified

 

Figure 2: Map of Mernyang and Surrounding Settlements

Source: Netting (1968) and modified

            

1.2        Statement of Research Problem

The Jos Plateau has been documented as one of the areas of continuous human adaptation from the Stone Age periods to the present.  The pre-historic distribution of early human settlements has been documented for sites such as Ropp rock shelter, dated to the Late Stone Age (LSA); Dutsen Kongba (LSA), Mai Idon Taro which revealed Acheulian – type stone tools clearly falls under the Early Stone Age and more recently the historical settlements of the RonKulere area (Mangut J, 1986). The Jos Plateau region presents evidence for a very long period of human occupation, however for the Qua‟anpan area, not much archaeological research has been conducted. The Qua‟anpan area though located in the south has a geographical connection to the hill ranges of northern Jos Plateau with its northernmost hills forming the boundary. These hills are home to the Mernyang speaking group. Therefore, the researcher saw the need to explore these southern hills which have not until now been studied archaeologically. This is important in order to provide a comprehensive picture of the history of the Jos Plateau.

Early historical works on the Jos-Plateau like those of 19th century European travellers were filled with erroneous information about the history of the people of the Jos-Plateau including the Mernyang. This is because they did not have first-hand information but relied on Hausa traders which led to derogatory misinterpretations (Barth, 1865 cf Mangut J. 1986b) which leaves a gap to be filled. This work seeks to collect primary information directly from the inhabitants of Mernyang hills in order to provide a historical document which presents the past of the people of the Jos Plateau as best perceived by them. Archaeological data which will be corroborated with this will help to confirm oral information in order to provide substantive historical information.

In line with the above problem, this research attempts to answer the following research questions which are fundamental to understanding the cultural history of the people: 

1.     What is the distribution of past human activities on the landscape of the Mernyang area?

2.     What is the nature of the economic system of the Mernyang hill settlements?

3.     Is there a distinct settlement pattern in the area which can be traced from the archaeological record to the present day?

4.     What are the socio-political and cultural characteristics that define the Mernyang hill settlers?

1.3         Scope of the Research

This research is exploratory and pioneering in nature and it is based on the surface study of cultural materials in the area. It focused on the hill settlements of the Mernyang group which falls within the southern fringes of the Jos Plateau. For the purpose of this research, settlements on the plains which are considered relatively young based on oral traditions compared to the hilly origins of the people were excluded (Kwapnoe, 2012). The Mernyang hill settlements comprise of living areas which provide ethnographic data and information about abandoned areas, sometimes identified by family names. These abandoned settlements consist of ruins of shelters in form of house foundations, dry stone walls and pottery remains.

About fifteen hill settlements have so far been identified in this area; however, only five hill settlements on the northernmost fringes that connect to the northern hills of the Jos-Plateau were researched (see fig. 2). These northernmost hills were chosen based on their geographical connection to the already studied northern Jos Plateau and the presence of Kofyar hill settlement which is the acclaimed ancestral home of the Mernyang people. The five hill settlements which include Kofyar, Bong, Lardang, Zuwakal and Mer were studied archaeologically to draw possible cultural relationships between them.

As a result of the time frame for this research, only five out of the fifteen identified Mernyang settlements were sampled for investigation. This research was restricted to landscape survey that is limited in scope to the reconstruction of the distribution of socio-economic activities in the area.

1.4         Justification of the Research

As a rich cultural area that has received little archaeological attention, this research seeks to reconstruct aspects of the people‟s historical settlements and subsistence system from the archaeological investigation of Mernyang hill settlements. This research also seeks to do a documentation of tangible aspects of the cultural past of the Mernyang people. This will serve as a foundation for subsequent cultural researches which can focus on more archaeological sites in the area in order to answer specific questions on certain human choices made in the past. The focus of this research is on the Mernyang like other ethnic groups such as the Ron, Ngas and Mwaghavul on the Plateau who are hill settlers that have attracted the attention of anthropologists.

The Mernyang area has previously been studied by Netting (1968) and later Stone (1991, 1992) from an anthropological perspective. Netting focused on the agricultural system while

Stone‟s work centered on settlement system. Other historical studies (like Walu 1991) have been done in this area, with some describing the diversity of languages and ethnic groups including Mernyang, that claim an origin from the Kofyar hill village as “the Kofyar Federation”. These studies have helped in exposing the Mernyang area, its ethnographic style of farming and settlement systems and its rich culture; nevertheless, this area has not been studied archaeologically. 

Even though this area was located through oral tradition and field-walking, an undergraduate project on one of the Mernyang hill settlements, Lardang, was conducted (Kwapnoe 2012). This hill settlement identifies Kofyar hill settlement as its point of origin, sharing a common language and farming system. Therefore, there was the need to carry out further archaeological researches on Kofyar and other hill settlements in the area to understand the people and their cultural past. This area displays evidence of rich cultural heritage revealed by remains of human settlements such as outstanding house foundations, graves, pottery, livestock pen and agricultural practices among other economic activities. 

The corroborative use of sources which include archaeological and ethnographic surveys, written sources as well as oral tradition used in this research will create an understanding of the

Mernyang people which will be an added knowledge to what is known about the people of the Jos Plateau.

1.5         Significance of the Research

This research intends to bring to light the evidence of past settlements on these sites, as well as review evidence of cultural relationships and their environment.

 An archaeological investigation of the Mernyang area exposed other aspects of the cultural past of the people of the Jos Plateau in addition to their trajectory of migration narratives. It is my hope that various aspects of the culture of this hill people exposed by this research shall become a reference material for future researches.

This work is also hoped to serve as an element of public enlightenment and awareness mechanism which public archaeology encourages for a better appreciation of the cultural heritage of the Jos Plateau. Through this, its people can participate as stake holders in its preservation.

1.6         Aim and Objectives of the Research

This research is aimed at understanding the cultural characteristics of the Mernyang hill settlements by archaeologically investigating them. This was achieved through the following objectives:

i.               To search for the distribution of past human activities on the landscape of the

Mernyang area. 

ii.              To study the economic system of the Mernyang hill settlements. iii.       To Study the settlement system of the area. iv.        To study the socio-political characteristics of the area.

1.7         Methods of Research

In line with the above aim and objectives, research methods like oral tradition, written sources, archaeological and ethnographic surveys were employed in this research.

1.7.1 Oral tradition

 Oral traditions are accounts of history or testimonies concerning the past of a society which are transmitted verbally from person to person and from one generation to another. (Fajana and Biggs 1977; Vansina, 1990). Information conveyed this way is either passed spontaneously without prior preparation or may be deliberately conducted with prior arrangement to convey messages to serve predetermined purposes, such as passing on knowledge of the heritage of communities. The collection of oral traditions during this research therefore was strategized to obtain information about the past of the Mernyang people from various inhabitants of the area. This supplemented the existing written documents that have direct links to the area so as to have a reconstruction and a documentation of the history of the area as well.   The usefulness of oral tradition when corroborated with other archaeological methods has been expressed by many scholars especially in relation to location of archaeological sites and tracing the migrations of peoples. Ibeanu (2006) demonstrated the usefulness of oral traditions in tracing the cultural heritage of societies. In his view, oral tradition provides, among other things, an understanding of the meanings and uses of aspects of the material culture and people‟s traditions of origin. 

Oral traditions were collected from the traditional heads, royals, hunters, handy men and women, traders, elders, learned individuals from each of these five hill settlements within the ages of 18-100. This variety of people were interviewed because it is believed that by virtue of their status, age or profession, their contact with a wider population of the community and its neighbours, they are better informed about their history and traditions. 

  As a result of low population on these hills, thirty people were interviewed using the oneon-one method of interview with the help of a question guide. The information collected includes the people‟s traditions of origin, economy, and other aspects of their culture. Oral tradition was used as a method of data collection in this archaeological investigation in order to corroborate the oral version of the people‟s history with archaeological data so as to have a better interpretation of their cultural past

1.7.2 Written sources

These include all the consulted historical documents that were used in this research.

These include European records, accounts of early European travellers and published historical works. These literatures were consulted in various libraries like the Department of Archaeology Reference Library in ABU, Zaria, Library of Northern History Research Scheme ABU, the

Kashim Ibrahim Library, ABU, Department of History Library, University of Jos, Plateau State Library, Jos, National Library, Jos and St. Augustine‟s Major Seminary Library, Jos. Some of the literatures used for the purpose of this research were reviewed to ascertain how much has been studied or is known about the area of study while others were used as references in the research.

1.7.3 Archaeological survey 

Price (2007) makes a clear distinction between reconnaissance and survey as types of surveying in archaeology. To him, reconnaissance involves field-walking to locate artifacts and sites while survey involves a systematic search for artifacts and sites using instruments to create maps and site plans. In line with this, a preliminary archaeological reconnaissance was carried out on Lardang, Bogolong, and Kofyar hill settlements which resulted in the identification of cultural materials like potsherds, house foundations, remains of shrines, granary foundations and grinding stones, located at different areas of the sites. 

Among the many field methods archaeologists employ in their investigations of the human past, archaeological survey is one of the most suitable for this research. Often used in the location of archaeological sites, application of the method has been in use since the days of antiquarianism. Although considered by many scholars as being very slow, it is considered to be thorough and it is mostly carried out on foot, mules, horses or motorized transport (Sharer and Ashmore 2003). With relatively recent technological development, land surveying has been revolutionized by the introduction of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) equipment and the Total Station, together with the satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS).

Archaeological surveying uses all the techniques of land surveyors, but requires an archaeological input to interpret what is present and worth recording, this involves the identification of what is natural as opposed to humanly created objects (Drewett, 1999). Archaeological survey is the measurement and recording of the finds and features discovered through reconnaissance.  It seeks to identify finds and features in relation to one another and their relationship with the environment (Renfrew and Bahn 2000). 

Therefore in this research, an archaeological survey of some of the Mernyang hill settlements was conducted. This involved ground survey, an old method of archaeological exploration, by slowly traversing the sites doing visual inspection at ground level in search of cultural materials or other indications of past human activities. The ground survey involved the systematic search for cultural materials, walking on the ground at an interval of between 50100m on the landscape of each hill settlement in order to cover large areas and recover as much materials as possible. This method was used in this research because it has been used for ages in archaeological investigations and it has proven to be an effective technique of recovering archaeological data for further analysis. During this archaeological survey, measurements and photographs of cultural materials were taken for documentation. Each of the five hill settlements was surveyed as an individual site; cultural finds were collected, recorded and analyzed as an entity.

The Geographic Information System (GIS) which is a computer program was used in this research to assist in mapping each of the five Mernyang hill settlements after ground data had been collected through survey and coordinates were taken with the Global Positioning System

(GPS). The GIS can only work with the data recorded on the GPS which is a universal receiver.

All data gathered through remote sensing can be separated, combined, and manipulated through the activity of image processing, which forms one of the key elements of Geographic Information Systems (Drewett, 1999). 

The GIS as a remote sensing tool (software) was used in this archaeological research to map out all the areas with evidence of past human habitation on the hill settlements using the coordinates recorded with the GPS. The GIS map of the Mernyang hill settlements, as a document was added to the known archaeological sites in Nigeria recorded on the GIS. This makes for easy identification and for further researches in the area.

1.7.4 Ethnographic survey

 Ethnography is the analytical study of an extant society or ethnic group through an examination of their material, social and linguistic characteristics (Hodder 1982 cf Bakinde 2006). The concept is also concerned with the culture of contemporary people such as economy, political systems, religion, kinship relations, ideas, technology, science, art and crafts. Ethnography is learned from the people.

Ethnographic data has been a profitable source of interpreting archaeological data for ages by drawing analogies between extant and extinct cultures. The marriage between ethnography and archaeology bore a branch of archaeology called Ethnoarchaeology.  

 Based on the above, ethnographic data was used in this research to study and interpret various aspects of the material culture found in Mernyang hill settlements especially where it is claimed to be the people‟s first point of origin. In addition, attempts were made to show the relationship between the extinct and the extant societies thereby tracing the possible cultural continuity at both the abandoned settlement and the present settlement. 


 

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