ABSTRACT
The microbiological and physiochemical analysis were carried out for 10 boreholes in Agbama Housing Estate Umuahia, Abia State. The microbiological analysis was carried out using the most probable number techniques (multiple tube techniques) for the detection of faecal coliform and subsequently, organism present in the samples of water were identified following the standard methods. The identified organisms include Bacillus species, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas species, Escherichia coli, Proteus species, Enterobacter species, Streptococcus species, Salmonella species, Shigella species, Vibrio cholerae. The family Bacillaceae, Staphylococcaceae, Pseudomonadaceae, Enterobacteriaceace. The fungi identified were; Rhizopus species, Clostridium species, penicillum species, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium species. The microbial count ranged as follows: total heterotrophic bacterial count of 1.4 x 104 Cfu/ml with a mean of 3.66 x 104 Cfu/ml, coliform count, 0.8 x 104 ─ 2.6 x 104 Cfu/ml, Salmonella/Shigella count, 0 x 104 ─ 0 x 104 Cfu/ml with a mean of 0 x104 Cfu/ml, the E. coli count, 0.2 x 104 ─ 2.4 x 104 Cfu/ml, the Vibrio count 0 x104 - 0.3 x104 Cfu/ml, fungal count 0 x 104 ─ 0.3 x 104 Cfu/ml. The physiochemical properties of the water samples was compared with that of the World Health Organization (WHO) standard and APHA standard values for drinking water and it showed clearly that all the values gotten fell within the APHA and WHO standards.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables vii
Abstract viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Statement of problem 3
1.2 Justification of the study 5
1.3 Objectives 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 How water gets into the
ground 6
2.2 Aquifers and bore holes 6
2.3 Early days of ground water
development 7
2.4 Indicators of ground water
quality 7
2.5 Microbial water quality 7
2.5.1 Heavy metals 10
2.6 Indices of water quality 11
2.6.1 Total dissolved solids 11
2.6.2 Temperature 12
2.6.3 pH 12
2.6.4 Conductivity 12
2.6.5 Turbidity 13
2.7 Nutrient contaminants 13
2.7.1 Sulphate 13
2.7.2 Phosphate 13
2.7.3 Nitrates 14
2.7.4 Ammonium solution 14
2.8 Potential microbial
accumulation in bore holes 14
2.8.1 Coliform bacteria and bore
hole contamination 15
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND
METHODS
3.1 Study area 16
3.2 Sample collection 16
3.3 Description of sampling
sites 16
3.4 Media preparation 17
3.5 Methods for
physicochemical analysis of water 18
3.6 Sample storage 18
3.7 Determination of
physicochemical parameters 18
3.8 Microbiological analysis 21
3.8.1 Preparation of serial
dilution 21
3.9 Isolation of Salmonella/Shigella specie 26
3.10 Isolation of Vibro species 26
3.11 Identification of fungi 27
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion 33
5.2 Conclusion 33
5.3 Recommendation 34
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
LIST
OF TABLES
Table Title Page
1
The mean counts f
microorganisms isolated from the borehole water 29
2 Occurrence for bacteria
isolated from borehole water samples 30
3 Fungi
isolated and their percentage occurrence 31
4 Physicochemical
parameters 32
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the earth’s most precious
resources. Although water is essential for human survival, many are denied
access to sufficient potable drinking water supply and sufficient water to
maintain basic hygiene. Globally, 1.1 billion people rely on unsafe drinking
water sources from lakes, rivers and open wells. The majority of these are in
Asia (20%) and sub-Saharan Africa (42%). Furthermore, 2.4 billion people lack
adequate sanitation worldwide (WHO, 2000).
In developing countries, thousands of children
under five years die every day due to drinking contaminated water (WHO, 2004).
Thus lack of safe drinking water supply, basic sanitation and hygienic
practices is associated with high morbidity and mortality from excreta related
diseases.
Water-borne pathogens infect around 250
million people each year resulting in 10 to 20 million deaths world-wide. An
estimated 80% of all illness in developing countries is related to water and
sanitation and 15% of all child deaths under the age of five years in developing
countries result from diarrheal diseases (WHO 2004). The lack of safe drinking
water and adequate sanitation measures could also lead to a number of diseases
such as dysentery, Salmonellosis, Shigellosis and typhoid, and every year millions of lives are claimed in developing
countries.
The evaluation of potable water supplies for coliform
bacteria is important in determining the sanitary quality of drinking water.
High levels of coliform counts indicate a contaminated source, inadequate
treatment or post-treatment deficiencies (Mathew et al., 1984). Many
developing countries suffer from either chronic shortages of freshwater or the
readily accessible water resources are heavily polluted (Lehloesa and Muyima,
2000).
Microbiological health risks remain
associated with many aspects of water use, including drinking water in
developing countries (Craun, 1986), irrigation reuse of treated wastewater and
recreational water contact (Grabow, 1991). It has been reported that drinking
water supplies have a long history of association with a wide spectrum of
microbial infections (Grabow, 2000).
The primary goal of water quality management
from a health perspective is to ensure that consumers are not exposed to doses
of pathogens that are likely to cause diseases. Protection of water sources and
treatment of water supplies have greatly reduced the incidence of these
diseases in developed countries (Craun, 1986; Grabow, 2000).
One of the goals of the United Nations
Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) is to reduce persistent poverty and
promote sustainable development worldwide especially in developing countries.
Improvement of drinking water supply and sanitation is a core element of
poverty reduction. The MDG target for water is to halve by 2015 the proportion
of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic
sanitation. The WHO (2004) estimates that if these improvements were to be made
in sub-Saharan Africa alone, 434,000 child deaths due to diarrhoea would be
averted annually. This MDG target will at least reduce the above numbers of
people without potable water and adequate sanitation. The provision of portable
water supply especially in developing countries may not be sufficient because
of:
a) High
population growth,
b) Conflict
and political instability, and
c) Low
priority given to water and sanitation programmers.
Boreholes are low-cost technology option for
domestic water supply in developing countries and are generally considered as
‘safe sources’ of drinking water. When properly constructed and maintained,
they provide consistent supplies of safe and wholesome water with low microbial
load and little need for treatment of the water before drinking. Water exists
in several forms in the environment including sea water, sea-ice, fresh water,
and water vapour as clouds and mist. As water moves through the environment it
picks up gases and elements, flows to the sea and through ground in an endless
process known as the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrological cycle ensures that water
available on the earth passes through a cycle of evaporation, condensation and
ultimately back to water in what seem endless and renewable. Groundwater occurs
as part of the hydrologic cycle, which is the movement of water between the
earth and the atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, transpiration and
precipitation. The underground area where groundwater exists is referred to as
an aquifer.
Groundwater comes from three major aquifer
zones (underground rock or sediment that is permeable and can conduct water)
generally situated from 300 to 1,500 feet below land surface. This drinking-water
supply (groundwater) is protected from surface contamination by a layer of clay
and fine-grained sediments. The level of ground water in the borehole may
undergo changes due to the recharge and discharge rate. The rate at which a
borehole is recharged may vary due to responses to withdrawal from wells
through pumping, as leakage to vertically adjacent aquifers, as natural flow
from an aquifer into streams and springs and also through evaporation from the
shallow water tables.
1.1 Statement
of Problem
In an effort to provide safe drinking water
to the rural and urban dwellers, the government in conjunction with development
partners, Non Governmental organization (NGO’s), Community Based Organization
(CBO’s) and some individuals have exploited the groundwater reserves since
ground water is believed to be cleaner and therefore do not need further
chemical treatment before consumption. Several practices such as fertilizer
application, agrochemicals, abandoned or inactive mine site, septic tanks,
landfill etc, if not managed effectively could result in the contamination of
groundwater. Microbiological health risks remain associated with many aspects
of water use. Some microorganisms are native or adapted to saturated sediments
and rock, and are present in significant numbers in most water supply aquifers
and even deep geological formations (UNEP, 1997). Biofilm formation sometimes
encourages the growth of bacteria in ground water. The quality of water in
boreholes is also affected by the presence of heavy metals such as, Pb, Mg, Cu,
Fe, K, and Na. Meteorological events and pollution are a few of the external
factors, which affect physicochemical parameters such as temperature, pH, total
dissolved solids, total suspended solids, turbidity and conductivity of the water.
They have a major influence on biochemical reactions that occur within the
water. Sudden changes in these parameters may be indicative of changing
conditions in the water. Internal factors on the other hand include events
which occur between and within bacterial and plankton populations in the water
body (Obi and Okocha, 2007). The United Nations Organization (UNO) designated
1981-1990 as the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade with
the aim of providing safe drinking water and adequate sanitation for all (Alam,
et al., 2007).
The ground water resources of the area has
been fairly assessed form some geologic formations in terms of borehole yield,
static water levels and water quality in some parts of the state especially in
Agbama Housing Estate Umuahia where almost all the borehole have been
identified and some have been developed and or are being developed .
The Agbama Housing Estate Umuahia can boost
of a number of boreholes which has been in use for several years. Some of the
boreholes since being constructed have scarcely been maintained, rehabilitated
or any major assessment carried out on the quality of water being pumped from
it. This study was to determine the quality of water from these boreholes, as to
ascertain it safety for consumption in relation to standards set by the World
Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water.
1.2 Justification
of the Study
The issue of accessibility to clean water is
of global magnitude. The global environmental outlook report indicates that
about 30% of the world’s population lack access to safe drinking water. The
consumption of water worldwide increases yearly whiles most of the world’s
water resources continue to dwindle due to improper environmental management
practices (APHA,2005). Globally, more than twenty five thousand people die
daily as a result of water related diseases (WHO, 2002). To achieve the
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) targets, for the period 2004 – 2015, data
collected by Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) 1998, as part of
their strategic investment plans estimate that, every year an average of
596,000 people need to gain access to an improved water supply.
1.3 Objective
The objective of this research is to
determine the quality of water from the boreholes in the Agbama Housing Estate
Umuahia, Abia State.
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