ABSTRACT
Three
types of sachet water samples and three types of borehole water samples all
from Owerri Municipal, Imo State were collected and analyzed for
physicochemical parameters. A total of twenty (21) parameters including Odour,
Colour, pH, Conductivity, Acidity, Alkalinity, Total Solids, Dissolved Solids,
Suspended Solids, Dissolved Oxygen (D.O), Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D),
Calcium, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Lead, Chloride, Nitrate, Zinc, Magnesium and
sulphate were analyzed. The W.H.O recommended standards shows that all the
samples are odourless and colourless. Borehole water is 7.1 in pH, while sachet
water has a lower value of 6.5. Acidity in sachet water has a mean value of
50mg/l while borehole water has 54mg/l. Total solids of borehole water is
higher with a mean value of 15.6mg/l, while sachet water has 5.7mg/l.
Alkalinity is higher in borehole water with a mean value of 165, while sachet
water has a lower value of 113. Dissolved oxygen in borehole water has a higher
value of 1.19mg/l than sachet water with a value of 0.83mg/l. C.O.D is trace in
all the samples. Suspended solids in borehole water is 1.02mg/l which is higher
than sachet water which has 0.62mg/l. Calcium is higher in borehole water with
a value of 3.1mg/l, while sachet water has 1.92mg/l. Copper content is higher
in borehole with a value of 1.42mg/l in borehole water, while sachet water has
0.49mg/l. Chloride is higher in sachet water with a value of 64.1mg/l and lower
in borehole water 56.2mg/l. Manganese and Lead values of borehole water are
0.54mg/l and 0.77mg/l respectively, which are higher than W.H.O standard,
while sachet water has values of
0.28mg/l and 1.01mg/l. Iron value of borehole water is 1.20mg/l, while sachet
water is lower with a value of 1.12mg/l. Nitrate is 0.39mg/l in borehole water
which is lower than sachet water which has 0.41mg/l. Borehole water is lower in
Zinc with a value of 0.41mg/l while sachet water has a higher value of
0.44mg/l. Borehole water has a phosphate value of 5.21mg/l while sachet water
has a lower value of 4.02mg/l. Magnesium is higher in borehole water with a
value 1.47mg/l, while sachet water has 0.93mg/l. The parameters analyzed most
generally conform to the W.H.O standards for drinking water.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title
page
..............................................................................................i
Certification
page...................................................................................ii
Dedication............................................................................................iii
Acknowledgement.................................................................................iv
Table
of
content....................................................................................vi
Abstract................................................................................................x
CHAPTER
ONE:
1.0
Introduction..................................................................................1
1.1 Sources of Water
..........................................................................3
1.2 Importance of
Water.....................................................................6
1.3 Water
Pollution............................................................................10
1.4 Water Quality
………………………………………………………………………….13
1.5 Portable water
…………………………………………………….....................15
1.6 Objective of the work
………………………………………………………..……17
1.7 Sampling………………………………………………………………………….……18
CHAPTER
TWO:
Literature
review .................................................................19
CHAPTER
THREE
MATERIALS
AND METHOD
3.1
Sample Locations…………………………………………..…………………31
3.2 Method of
Analysis…………………………………………...………………34
3.3 Physical
Analysis………………………………………..………..…………..35
3.3.1 Determination of
Colour……………………………..………….…………35
3.3.2 Odour…………………………………………………………………………….35
3.3.3 Electrical Conductivity.…………………………………………………….35
3.3.4 Determination of PH
Value…………………………………………….…36
3.4 Chemical
Analysis……………………………………………………..…….36
3.4.1 Determination of Total
Solid…………………………………………..…36
3.4.2 Determination of Dissolved Solid
………………………………………37
3.4.3 Determination of Suspended Solid
(S.S)…………………………….37
3.4.4 Determination of
Acidity………………………………………….………37
3.4.5 Determination of
Alkalinity………………………………….…………….38
3.4.6 Determination of
C.O.D…………………………………..……….……….38
3.4.7 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen…………………………..…….…39
3.4.8 Determination of Calcium
………………………………………..…….…39
3.4.9 Determination of
Magnesium……………………………….…..……….40
3.4.10 Determination of
Chloride…………………………………….…..………40
3.4.11 Determination of Iron…………………………………………………….…40
3.4.12 Determination of Zinc ………………………………………………………41
3.4.13 Determination of Lead………………………………………………………41
3.4.14 Determination of Manganese………………………………….…….….42
3.4.15 Determination of copper
…………………………………………......….42
3.4.16 Determination of Nitrate………………………………………………....42
3.4.17 Determination of
Phosphate..………………………………………..…43
CHAPTER
FOUR
RESULTS,
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
4.0 Analytical
Results …………………………………………….………………44
4.1 Tables……………………………………………..………………………………44
4.2 Discussions…………………………………………………………………..…49
4.3 Conclusions………………………………………………………….…………54
References………………………………………………………………………55
Appendix
One………………………………………………………………….60
Appendix
Two……………………………………………………….…………64
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is a universal solvent, which
consist of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Chemically, it could be defined as a
chemical substance with two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen in each of
its molecules; hence the molecular formula is H2O. It is formed by
the direct reaction of hydrogen with oxygen;
2H2 + O2
2H2O
Water is colourless, odourless and
tasteless liquid in its pure form. It is an inorganic substance that occurs in
three states; liquid gaseous and solid states1. Water covers 71% of
the earth surface. On earth , it is found mostly in oceans and other large
water bodies with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air
as vapour clouds (formed from the solid and liquid water particles suspended in
air), and precipitation2.
Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glacier and polar ice cap 2.4% and
other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small
amount of the Earths water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured
products. Water on earth moves continually through a cycle of evaporation,
transpiration, precipitation and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Overland,
evaporation and transpiration contributes to the precipitation. Clean and fresh
drinking water is essential for human and other life forms. Access to safe
drinking water has improved steadily and substantially over the last decades in
almost every part of the world3, 4. There is a correlation between
access to safe water and GDP, per capita5. However, some observers
have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be
facing water-based vulnerability6.
As water is heated from OOC,
it contracts until 4oC is reached and then begins the expansion
which is normally associated with increasing temperature. The viscosity of
water decreases ten folds as the temperature is raised from OOC to
100 OC, and this also is associated with the decrease of ice like
character in the water as the hydrogen bonds are disrupted by increasing
thermal agitation. The electrical conductivity of water is at 1,000,000 times
larger than that of most other non-metallic liquids at room temperature. The
current in this case is carried by ions produced by the dissociation of water
according to the reaction;
H2O H+ + OH-
These products recombine completely
to form water vapour, also undergoes most of the chemical reactions of liquid
water and at very high concentration even shows some of the unusual solvents
properties of liquid water. Above 3740C, water vapour may be
compressed to any density without liquefying, and at a density as high as
0.4glcm3, it can dissolve appreciable quantities of salt7.
1.1 SOURCES OF WATER
Water naturally exists in three main
sources; rain water, ground water and surface water.
Rain water is naturally the purest
source of water but as it gets down it absorbs compounds from the atmosphere.
Its main components are chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, sodium, potassium and
ammonia. The concentration can vary from 0.1 to 10uglml. The rain can be
collected from roofs and prepared water sheds which could assist in polluting
and making it one of the most unfit sources of water for drinking8.
Ground water are said to have emanated
from the melting of meteoric water (rain, snow, and hailstone), into the
ground, they have served as source of domestic water supply. It offers cheaper
and purer supply. The main ionic components are chloride, nitrate, sulphates,
potassium, sodium and calcium. This includes natural springs, wells and
boreholes9. As it percolates into the earth it is subjected to some
purification actions by the numerous chains of pervious and impervious rock
strata or layers. Because of the disintegrating and dissolving power of water,
it dissolves some of the rocks which make up the earth layers making it to have
impurities like oxides, nitrate, sulphates, calcium, iron, magnesium9.
Some level of purity is achieved on turbidity, colour, odour and taste. It
reaches surface through wells, shafts, springs, borehole.
The oceans hold about 97% of earth’s
water. More than 2% is locked up in ice in the polar caps, and over 75% of the
fresh water of the world is ice of the 1% of the liquid fresh water. Some is
ground water at depths of over 1000 feet and impractical to obtain, and only
the very small difference, possibly 0.6% of the total water of this planet is
ever available to man as it cycles sea to atmosphere to land to sea.
Surface water includes streams, ponds
and lakes, its main ionic compounds include chlorides, nitrates, sulphates,
magnesium and calcium. The concentration of components here are more than those
in rain water and ground water. Sea water could be considered as surface water.
The salt content in it is so much that it cannot be used as drinking water
because it would take the body a lot of work to flush out excess salt before
usage for metabolism, it is also inadequate in the machinery use as it rust
machines, it kills most crops frequently carry suspended solids10.
Water can dissolve many different
substances giving it different taste and odour. In fact, humans and other
animals have developed senses to be able to evaluate the portability of the
putrid swamps; and favour the pure water of the mountain, spring, and aquifer.
Humans also tend to prefer cold water rather than lukewarm, as cold water is
likely to contain fewer microbes. The pleasant taste associated with spring
water or mineral water is derived from the minerals dissolved in it, as pure
water is tasteless.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Water
is an indispensable rain material for a multitude of domestic and industrial
purpose. Water is the most abundant material, its cheap production with less
than 500ppm impurities will be more important to the world than atomic energy,
as we all know it today. Water plays an important role in the world economy as
it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and facilities
industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of fresh water is
consumed by agriculture11.
Domestic uses of water includes;
cooking, washing of clothes, cars, dishes, to shower, flushing away of wastes
and drinking. The human body contains 55% to 78% water depending on body size12.
To function properly, the body requires between one and seven litres of water
to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity,
temperature, humidity and other factors. Most of these are injected through
foods or beverages other than drinking water directly. It is not clear how much
water intake healthy people need, though most advocates agree that 6-7 of
glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration13.
Water is used for fighting wildfires.
Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a
good fire extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water carries heat away from
the fire. However, water cannot be used to fight fires of electric equipments
because impure water is electrically conductive or of oils and organic
solvents, because they float on water and the explosive boiling of water tends
to spread the burning liquid. Use of water in
fire fighting should also take account the hazards of a stream
explosion, which may occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined
spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, which may react with water, such as
certain metals or hot graphite, decomposed the water producing hydrogen gas.
Water is used in biochemical processes,
it is central to photo synthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the
sun’s energy to split off water molecule (photolysis of water) to form hydrogen
and oxygen.
2H2O 4H + + 4e- + O2
Hydrogen is combined with CO2
(absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and released oxygen. All living
cells use such fuels and oxidized the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun’s
energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular
respiration). Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme
function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is a proton) donor can
be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor, such as hydroxide ion (OH-)
to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log
of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids have pH values less than 7 while
bases have values greater than 7.
In agriculture, the most important use
of water is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food.
Irrigation takes up to 90% water withdrawn in some developing countries14
and significant proportions in developed countries, (United State 30% of fresh
water usage is for irrigation15).
Water is widely used in chemical
reactions as a solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic reactions
it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric (acidic and basic)
and nucleophilic.
In recreation, water can be used for
many purposes as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include
swimming, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports like ice hockey
and ice-skating are played on ice. Lake sides, beaches and water paths are
popular place for people to go, relax and enjoy recreation. Humans also use
water for snow sports like sledding, snowboarding, which requires the water to
be frozen.
Industrial uses of water includes;
cooling of machinery in power plants, condenser cooling, sanitary services and
for boilers. Many industrial processes rely on reactions using chemicals
dissolved in water, suspensions of solids in water slurries or using water to
dissolve and extract substances.
Water is used in power generation.
Hydro-electricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power
comes from water driving and water turbine connected to a generator.
Hydroelectricity is low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The sun
supplies the energy. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as
rain at higher altitudes from where it flows down. Pressurized water is used in
blasting and water jet cutters. Also very high-pressure water guns are used for
precise cuttings. It works very well; it is relatively safe and not harmful to
the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent
overheating as in vehicle radiators.
1.3 WATER
POLLUTION
Water
pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans
and groundwater. All water pollution affects organisms and plants that live in
these water bodies and in almost all cases the effect is damaging either to
individuals, species or population or also to the natural biological
communities. It occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly
into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful constituents.
The point sources of water pollution
include waste generated by human settlements, domestic, commercial and
industrial activities and the precipitation of atmosphere pollutants. Water
pollutants types can be categorized into the following;
i.
Physical
pollutants: They include; silts, clay, discarded objects, weeds, decaying
organic matter, which generally affect the aesthetic quality of surface waters.
ii.
Chemical
pollutants: They are non-biodegradable toxic heavy metals such as lead, cadmium
and mercury, as well as persistent and hazardous organic pollutants such as
pesticides, phenols and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
iii.
Microbial
pollutants: These pollutants arise from the discharge of effluents from domestic
sources and manufacturing industries into surface water. Faecal contaminants
can also lead to microbial pollutants.
iv.
Radioactive
pollutants: These include substances or effluents carrying such substances
containing radioisotopes such as radium 226, strondium 90 and caesium 13716.
Other sources of pollution include
petroleum hydrocarbons (fuels like gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels and fuel
oil) and lubricants (motor oil) and fuel combustion by-products from storm,
water runoff. Inorganic water pollutants include acidity caused by industrial
discharges especially sulphur dioxide from power plants, heavy metal from motor
vehicles. Also Fertilizers containing nutrients (nitrates and phosphates),
which are found in storm, water runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial
and residential use.
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
Forms with large livestock and poultry
operations such as factory farms are called concentrated animals feeding in the
U.S and are being subjected to increasing government regulation. Animal
slurries are usually treated by containment in lagoons before disposal by spray
or trickle application to grass land. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used
to facilitate treatment of animal wastes, as anaerobic lagoons. Some animal’s slurries
are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce
bacteriological sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous)
are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or
spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater effluent. Management plans to
reduce excess application of nutrients, to minimize pesticides impacts, farmers
may use integrated pest management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological
pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical
pesticides and protect water quality. Thermal pollution from run-off can be
controlled by storm water management facilities that absorb the run-off or
direct it into ground water, such as bio retention systems and infiltration
basins.
Pollution
prevention practices include low impact development techniques; installation of
green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels and
oil fertilizers and pesticides).
1.4 WATER
QUALITY
The
importance of high quality water cannot be over-emphasized as it sustains human
life and maintains health. Most waters, before they reach the consumer, have
been exposed to greater or lesser amount of contamination, but in the majority
of case, they have also undergone a more or less complete purification by
natural agencies17.
The impurities liable to be found in
water vary considerably in quantity and type. The kind of impurity to be
expected in a water supply depend on the type of supply whether or not the
water has been for long in the ground in contact with soluble minerals, whether
or not it has been exposed on surface to organic pollution18.
Water in its natural state may not be
pure because it is a universal solvent with the ability to dissolve numerous
chemicals and to carry a lot of impurities that may predominantly come from
man’s socio-economic and technological activities may be injurious, pathogenic
or toxic with deleterious health consequence to humans if tolerable limits are
exceeded19.
Domestic water is the water used for
household and sanitary needs as well as urban, industrial and municipal
requirements. The water should be harmless to the health of man, have proper
organopelptic properties and be suitable for domestic uses. The standard of
water in Nigeria should be in line with the World Health Organization (WHO)
standard.
Water delivered to the consumer should
be clear, odourless, tasteless and colourless. It should contain no pathogenic
organisms and be free from biological forms, which may be harmful to human
health. Waters are considered of doubtful quality unless proven otherwise. It
is therefore important that drinking water be monitored to ascertain the level
and nature of pollution. Any information derived would subsequently quid in
determining the type and degree of treatment required to make the water potable
and to guarantee health and safety20.
1.5 PORTABLE WATER
Water to be used for human
consumption must be meet certain requirements. It must be free of all disease
causing microorganisms, low in concentration of compounds that are acutely
toxic or that have serious long term effect on heath. Ideally water for
drinking should be clear, free of odour and compound that can cause colour or
taste. Drinking water from the ground is obtained by drilling boreholes and
shallow wells through the existing water table to form a well point. In certain
regions of southern Africa, as the water percolates through the soil, harmful
physical, biological and chemical constituents (e.g. fine suspended matter,
faecal coliform and fluoride) become contained in the water making it
unsuitable for human consumption.
The quality of drinking water has
attracted great attention worldwide because of implied public health impacts.
Sachet packaged drinking water is very common in Nigeria. It is often found as
a major source of water at food canteens and sold by many food vendors in the
country. The majority of the population consume it, hence the need to ascertain
the qualities of sachet and borehole water in order to safeguard the health of
consumers. Many common and widespread health risks have been found to be
associated with drinking water in developing countries, a large percentage of
which are of biological origin21. Unsafe water, poor sanitation and
good hygiene have been reported to rank third among the 20 leading risk factors
for health burden in developing countries including Nigeria22.
The guidelines for drinking water quality
(W.H.O) are intended for use by countries as a basis for the development of
national standards which if properly implemented will ensure the safety of
drinking water supplies23.
1.6 OBJECTIVES
OF THE WORK
It
is of most importance that any water sample intended to be used is properly
analyzed to determine its quality and to know the extent to which it should be
treated. This analysis is necessary because the bulk of water supplied to the
public for domestic uses or industrial purposes entail that most probably, they
will have their different quantities, hence the needs to determine the quality
of each sample.
The main purpose of this work is to ascertain the quality of borehole
water and sachet water from Owerri Municipal, Imo State by determining the
physiochemical parameters of the waters in order compare both water and
ascertain the one that have more portability for human consumption.
1.7 SAMPLING
Sampling
technique must be considered for any analysis. The accuracy of the analysis
depends on proper sampling. Sampling is simply collection of materials.
Precautions should be taken during sampling and this includes;
1. The container should be clean.
2. Tin and steel containers should not
be used as they cause corrosion.
3. Samples should be labelled
accurately.
4. Water from tap should be carefully
flushed/pumped before collection and tap shouldn’t touch containers to avoid
contamination.
5. Volume of water should be large
enough for accurate analysis.
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