ABSTRACT
The study investigated small scale livestock production for improved household livelihood among rural women in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Specifically the study described the socio-economic characteristics of respondents in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria; ascertained livestock enterprise characteristics of the respondents and assessed livelihood status of members of households engaged in livestock production; ascertained contributions of livestock production to livelihood and identified constraints faced by the women in livestock production in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The study population comprises of all rural women who kept livestock at small scale in Akwa Ibom State. Purposive, multistage, random sampling techniques were employed in selecting a sample size of 240 respondents, while structured interview schedule organized in sections according to specific objectives was employed in data collection. Statistical tools such as frequency counts, percentages, mean rating, Pearson product moment correlation and multiple regression were adopted in data analysis. The findings show that majority (54.2%) of the respondents were married, while 55.8 percent of them were within the age ranges of 41-60 years, and about 37.5% of the respondents had at least primary education attainment with about 51.3% of them having livestock farming as their primary occupation. On livestock enterprise characteristics, majority (63.1%) raised goat under extensive system. Under livelihood status, the results, showed that about 33.6% and 32.5% of the respondents had an acceptable livelihood of expenditure and food consumption scores indices respectively. Results also show that major contributions of livestock production to rural women households were direct access to milk, egg and meat (
= 3.34), provision of cash from sales of livestock and livestock products (=3.31), improved family nutrition ( = 3.08), and help to offset debt that required urgent attention (= 3.07). Major constraints faced by the women were problems of theft and road accidents ( = 2.87), inadequate decision making in livestock production (= 76) and multiple roles including domestic chore (= 71). Results of hypothesis 1 showed a weak significant correlation between livestock production and expenditure on food consumption. Test of hypothesis 2 revealed that feed (0.341**) had a positive coefficient, while labour (-0.217**) and drug (-0.249**) were negatively significant. In conclusion, small scale livestock production has improved the livelihood of households of rural women in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, but is being constrained by several factors which need to be addressed to ensure sustainable livelihood improvement of the rural women. The study recommended improve ownership of livestock production assets among rural women, improved decision making abilities in livestock production among rural women, availability of improve livestock production information to the women, provision of training needs under livestock enterprise performance with women involvement and encouragement of women embrace of innovations, income generation and living standards as well as improve government support to extension services.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Page i
Declaration
ii
Certification
iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment
v
Table
of Contents vi
List
of Tables viii
List
of Figures ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 5
1.3 Research Questions
8
14 Objectives of the Study 8
1.5 Hypotheses Testing 9
1.6
Justification of the Study 9
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW
OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
Concept of Livelihood 12
2.2
Review of Empirical Literature 18
2.2.1 Socio-economic characteristics of women
involved in livestock production in
rural areas 18
2.2.2
Livestock enterprise characteristics of
rural women 21
2.2.3 Livelihood status of households engaged in
livestock production 24
2.2.4
Contribution of livestock production to
household livelihood 27
2.2.5
Constraints faced by women in livestock
production 30
2.2.6
Livelihood status of livestock farming
households and their food intake measures. 35
2.3
Review of Related Theories 37
2.3.1
Entitlement theory 37
2.3.2
Classes of entitlement theory 38
2.3.3
Complexity theory 39
2.3.4
Ideas about complex systems 40
2.4 Conceptual
Framework 42
CHAPTER 3:
METHODOLOGY
3.1 The Study Area 45
3.2
Population of the Study 45
3.3 Sample and Sampling Procedure 46
3.4 Data Collection Procedure 46
3.5 Validation of Instrument 47
3.6 Reliability of Instrument 47
3.7 Measurement of Variables 47
3.8 Data Analysis 47
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents
51
4.1.1
Marital status of respondents 51
4.1.2
Age of respondents 52
4.1.3 Household size of respondents 52
4.1.4 Educational attainment of respondents 53
4.1.5 Primary occupation of the respondents 53
4.1.6 Membership of cooperative societies among
the respondents 54
4.2 Livestock Enterprise Characteristics of
the Rural Women 56
4.3 Livelihood Status of Rural Women
Households in the Study Area 60
4.4 Contributions of Livestock Production to
Household Livelihood 63
4.5 Constraints Faced by Women in the Study
Area 65
4.6 Test of Hypothesis 1 67
4.7 Test of Hypothesis 2 68
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY,
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of Findings 71
5.2 Conclusions 73
5.3 Recommendations 74
5.4 Suggestion for Further Studies 74
References 77
Appendix 82
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.1: Socio-economic
characteristics of respondents 55
4.2:
Distributions of farmers by enterprise
and management systems 59
4.3: Livelihood status of respondents based
on expenditure 60
4.3.1: Livelihood status of respondents based on
food consumption scores 60
4.3.2: Livelihood
status of respondents based on food consumption scores and expenditure on food 62
4.4: Contributions of livestock production
to household livelihood 64
4.5: Constraints
faced by women in livestock production 65
4.6: Test of hypothesis 1 67
4.7: Test of hypothesis 2 68
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1: Conceptual
framework – Small scale livestock production for improved household livelihood among rural women in
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria 44
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Agriculture
is a key livelihood activity in both developing and developed countries
including Nigeria. Women constitute a major workforce in the Agricultural
sector with a large percentage of women as actors in Nigeria. Farnworth (2010)
reported that in Asia, 43% of the workforce engaged in agriculture were women,
while the percentage is 60 in Africa. In spite of efforts made to attain
sufficient food production worldwide, over one billion people are
undernourished (FAO, 2009). This is because the underlying issues in food
intake lies primarily with the question of access and distribution
(availability) rather than quantity alone. Relevant with growing economic
activities globally, there is a growing need to assess rural women’s
contribution to household livelihood using livestock production as a strategy.
Ibnouf (2009) noted that women’s work in the agricultural sector often remains
invisible because the product of their labour are for the large part intended
for household consumption and do not reach the market economy.
Livestock
are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce
commodities such as food, fiber and labour. According to FAO (2006), there has
been an increase in research regarding the importance of livestock to
livelihood. Livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by human
for useful and commercial purposes. They are generally either kept in an
enclosure, fed by access to natural foods or allowed to graze freely.
In
Nigeria, livestock production is achieved mostly through nomadic pastoral and
homestead. Specific among the livestock enterprise are the rural cattle, sheep,
goat, pigs, poultry (ducks, guinea fowls and chicken) and rabbit which in most household are carried
out at a subsistence level (Owolade; Oyesola, Yekini, and Popoola, 2013).
Similarly, although livestock production
increases Nigeria Gross Domestic Products (GDP), it remains an asset, source of income, employer of labour,
revenue source to government (tax and export), source of food and meat,
provider of animal protein requirement, source of manure for crop production,
power and transport options (FAO, 2009). Livestock production by rural women
has constituted a major contributor to livelihood of many householders. Women
as Small holders have emerging interests and opportunity in livestock
production as opportunities within a broad rural development strategy (FAO,
2009). Household livelihood is closely linked to poverty. This is why International
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2010) promotes poverty reduction
through improvement of livelihoods of small scale farmer households through
improved food intake and nutritional security, increased income through sales
of agricultural and agricultural related products and services. Owolade et al., (2013) reported a significant positive relationship between income
and food intake. The findings concluded that income realized from livestock
production significantly contributed to household food intake status of
households.
According
to International Standard, a small farm less than 10 hectares are classified as
small scale and the small scale farmer depends on his efficiency in the
utilization of basic production resources available to him or her. Small scale
farming is the production of crops and livestock on small piece of land without
using any advanced and expensive technologies. Though the size of farm is a
source of debate, it can be argued that farming on a small piece of land, on
traditional lands and small holding on the periphery of urban areas falls in
this category. This type of farming is usually characterized by intensive
labour and in most cases, animal traction, limited use of agrochemicals and
supply to the local and surrounding markets. Small scale livestock approach is
holistically adapted and the system is characterized by small farms, use of low
amount of inputs predominantly based on grazing and having more success to
local and informal market. Small scale livestock farming is the livestock
system that competes least for human food, given that it depends primarily on
grazing and scavenging. It spreads among sub-urban farms where livestock is fed
through crop scavenging and residues, thereby making the system to be very
efficient in recycling residues. More than 90% of rural families in most
developing countries keep more than one type of livestock to guarantee their
livelihood. In communities of small scale livestock families it provides fiber,
social status, draught power, manure, recycling residues, cultural identity and
keeping savings etc. (Nuru, 2003).
Animal
source foods (ASF), such as milk, meat and eggs, are rich in energy and also
provide a good source of proteins, vitamins and minerals. The consumption of
ASF, particularly by the rural poor, can therefore substantially contribute to
dietary diversity and household nutritional status, which has implications on
household productivity, income levels and ultimately national development.
However, the role that gender inequalities (in resource allocation, income management
and access to productive resources) play in causing food insecurity is less
well studied. Little is known about the role that livestock play in buffering
households against food deficit or the implications of livestock ownership by
women in influencing food intake. The extent to which livestock contributes to
livelihood is dependent on intra-household dynamics including: women’s
ownership of assets, including livestock, and the extent to which they make
decisions on the use of assets, their products and the income derived from
these assets. Women’s decision-making on how much of the products to sell and
how much to keep for domestic consumption.
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A
growing body of evidence (Kariuki, Njuki, Mburu and Waithanji, 2013; Meinzen-Dick,
Johnson, Quisumbing, Njuki, Behrman, Rubin, Peterman, and Waitanji, 2011) has
shown that not only do women typically have fewer assets than men, but the
assets owned by women are used differently. Increasing women’s control over
assets (mainly land, physical, and financial), will bring about positive
effects on food security, child nutrition, and education, as well as women’s
own well-being.
Livestock
plays a key role in contributing to livelihood through: enabling direct access
to milk, meat, eggs etc.; providing cash income from sale of livestock and
livestock products for purchasing food, especially during times of food
shortage; contributing to increased grain yields as a result of improved
productivity from use of manure and traction.
Report from Kariuki et al (2013)
shows that ownership of livestock by women increases the probability that women
will make decisions on allocation of livestock, livestock products or income
derived from these on household consumption, increasing the likelihood that
households consume these products. The results show that if women own
livestock, the number of months that households have adequate food increases.
However, the extent to which livestock contribute to livelihood is dependent on
intra-household dynamics. In this context, women’s often limited control over
productive assets and income management remains a potential risk to their
ability to boost household food intake (Kariuki et al, 2013).
Therefore,
the role of livestock production in household livelihood cannot be overemphasized.
Most importantly, the role of women in many aspects of agricultural enterprises
with respect to household wellbeing is also worth investigating. Studies show
that resources and income controlled by women are more likely to be used to improve
family food consumption (Kristjanson, Waters-Bayer, Johnson, Tipilda, Njuki,
Baltenweck, Grace, and MacMillan, 2010). This study intends to provide current
and reliable data on the role that livestock production plays in household
livelihood as a strategy that women employ, with household food security as a
proxy focus on establishing the relationship between household food intake and
livestock production.
1.2
STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM
Agriculture
can help reduce poverty for 75% of the world’s poor, who live in rural areas
and engaged mostly in farming according to the World Bank (2012). It provides
continuous source of essential food products like meat, milk, etc. which plays
a vital role in the agricultural and rural economies of the developing world,
not only to produce food directly, they also provide key inputs to crop
production. The report notes that it can also raise income, improve food
intake, livelihood, food security and the environment. In spite of this
assertion, Mwaniki (2005) reported that food insecurity in Africa has existed
due to extreme poverty and poor agricultural productivity. This position is
further supported by Olorunfemi and Aderinola (2005) who noted that majority of
the households were poor and lacked the purchasing power to procure food they
needed particularly with soaring inflationary rate. Livestock is an integrated
economic activity which contributes 5-6% of the Gross Domestic Products (GDP)
and therefore plays a major role in the socio-economic development of any
nation such as Nigeria.
Nenghanjwa
(2005) reported that women ownership of livestock including cattle had a
significant positive impact on food availability, while ownership of land among
women had significant negative impact on livelihood. This scenario actually
revealed the constraint that women ownership of cattle had a significant
positive impact on available food (food intake proxy measure). Women engage in
most agro enterprises, but it is doubtful the extent women engage in livestock
production as a strategy by women to contribute to the achievement of household
livelihood. The perception of agricultural production as male dominated
activity despite major contribution by the women leaves much to be desired. The
need therefore arises for studies that will highlight women’s distinct roles in
diverse enterprises and throughout the agricultural value chain in ensuring
food intake of their households be continuously investigated (Farnworth, 2010).
Chen
and Ravallion (2008) reported that using a $1/ day poverty line, 17% of the
developing world or 1 billon people are poor of which 70-75% live in rural
areas. With over 50% of the poor’s income spent on food, many of the poor
households cannot consume the recommended calories and protein they require for
an active life. Ahmed, Itill, Smith, Wiesmann, and Frankenberger, (2007), observed that poor people not
only eat too little but that their diet are often limited and they lack
essential micronutrients such as iron, iodine, Zinc, and vitamin A. International
Development Research Center (IDRC) (2010) noted that many of the rural poor
depend in whole or in part on purchased food, even when farming is central to
their livelihood. This scenario depicts a state of food insecurity. A study on
food intake shows that the elderly are food insecure (Ekot, 2013). The research
showed that coping strategies used by the elderly does not include livestock
farming.
Despite
huge investments in the agricultural sector in Akwa Ibom State, studies (Ekot,
2013, Ekpenyong, 2014, and IFAD, 2012) show a state of food insecurity in the
state. For example in the livestock subsector, the Accelerated Livestock and
Fish Production Programme (ALFLP) which began in 2005 designed to boost protein
intake by the inhabitants established 3 poultry hatcheries with a capacity for
19,000 day old-chicks a week; established 10 fish farm estates all at the cost
of 11.6 billion Naira (Akwa Ibom State Government 2011).The project also had a
corresponding storage facility of 30,000 metric tons of fish and meat as well as 50,000 metric tons of
fertilizer, including processing facilities. Against the backdrop of the
benefits of the projects and agricultural based programmes, it is doubtful the
extent of women involvement and in particular livestock sub-sector.
Over
the years, effort and concentration has been on crop production leading to
neglect of livestock production and conventional meat, milk, egg (Protein
requirement) etc. Moreover, the foregoing, studies on food security and intake
centers on either crop or other concerns (Ekot, 2013, Ekpenyong, 2014 ILTI,
2012 and IFAD, 2012). There seems to be paucity of information on levels of
women involvement in agricultural production especially livestock enterprise
among members of households in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. This study therefore, is designed to fill
this research gap and investigate women engagement in livestock production as a
strategy to attain household livelihood. Studies on livelihood in Akwa Ibom
seems to create some gaps for which this study is designed to close. For
Example Ekpenyong, Ekot and Inyang (2007) examined hunger and food insecurity
and its implication on families in Akwa Ibom State. Similarly Ekpenyong (2007)
focused on food security, livelihood, side – by – side Urbanization and
poverty. Another research by (Ekot, 2013) also revealed a recent study
concentrated on food security among the elderly. All these studies seem to be
diagnostic in nature on the subject. This study is therefore designed to
examine the gender dimension of addressing the problem with livestock farming
as a strategy for improving household livelihood.
1.3
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study was guided by the following research
questions:
i.
What is the socioeconomic
characteristics of rural women engaged in livestock production in Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria?
ii.
What are the livestock
enterprises engaged by the rural women in the study area?
iii.
What is the livelihood
status of households of the rural women engaged in livestock production?
iv.
What contribution(s) has
livestock production made to livelihood of households engaged in it?
v.
What constraints’ do
women who engaged in livestock production face in attempt to use it as a
strategy to attain improved livelihood in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria?
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The
broad objective of this study was to investigate small scale livestock
production for improved household livelihood among rural women in Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria.
The
specific objectives include to:
i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of
respondents in the study area;
ii. ascertain
livestock enterprise characteristics of rural women in the study area;
iii. assess livelihood status of households engaged in livestock
production in the study area;
iv. ascertain
contributions of livestock production to livelihood of households engaged in it;
and
v. identify
constraints faced by women in livestock production in the study area.
1.5 HYPOTHESES TESTING
The
following hypotheses were tested in this study
H01:
There is no relationship between livestock production and household livelihood
status in the study area.
H02:
There is no significant relationship
between output of livestock and utilized factors of production.
1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The
need to continue to investigate women’s roles, responsibilities, access to and
control over asset and authority to make decisions about resources and income
use becomes imperatives especially given the dominance of women in farming (Odomelam,
2010). Given the fact that women play a predominant role in household food
intake (FAO, 2009) which translate to 60-80% of household food intake in
sub-Saharan Africa, there is therefore the need to examine how livestock assist
women to achieve improved livelihood given the fact that they have less access
to land, resource credit, extension service, agricultural inputs and
technology. It is important, this study be carried out to scientifically
understand the dimension of women livelihood role played in using livestock
farming as a means for achieving their important Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) target and to what extent it has been achieved by the population under
study.
The problems faced by rural women in
livestock production to improve their livelihood can be measured in terms of
inadequate land, extension services low decision making in livestock production
etc. The result from this study will likely profer solution to some of the
problems faced by the rural women engaged in livestock production and also improve
their household livelihood. Policy direction and implementation toward improve
household livelihood of the rural women can be effective since the information
from this study will reveal the characteristics of rural women involved in
small scale livestock production.
It
is often said that “a healthy person is a wealthy person.” One of the greatest
threats to health is inadequate food (food insecurity). Adequate, safe and
nutritious food intake is an invariable factor for rural, human and economic development.
There are some evidence to support the contention in rural women in small scale
livestock production in particular. A recent study of livelihood by FAO in Asia
concurs with this observation, and concluded that in every country has an
adequate organizational solution been found for advising rural women who do not
only work at home but also raise livestock.
The failure to see the contribution of women to livelihood using
livestock raising is an overall problem related to lack of support and resources.
In looking at rural women and livelihood as a neglected segment, the reality of
life in a country must be drastically addressed.
The important contribution made by
women in food intake justifies the necessity to make the livestock more
equitable. This work will add value and point to how frontiers of the existing
body of knowledge on the subject the study may act as a measure of the level of
intervention that must be applied on improved livelihood of rural women in Akwa
Ibom State, Nigeria. The above background, therefore proves that study may also
serve as a guideline for other researches and interest groups to apply similar
strategies in the geographical areas.
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