ABSTRACT
The chemical and elemental constituents of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides were evaluated. The fresh green Pterocarpus Santalinoides leaves were handpicked to remove foreign particles and rinsed in de-ionized water to remove dust and dirt. Pterocarpus santalinoides leaves was washed, drained and shade dried at room temperature for seven days. After drying, the vegetables were pulverized into powder and labelled as shade dried. Proximate, phytochemicals, minerals and vitamins composition were determined according totheir respective standard methods. From the results, it was seen that that flavonoids are significantly (p<0.05) higher than other phytochemicals, which was followed by oxalates and then alkaloids. Tanins and phenols are non-significantly (p>0.05) different from each other when compared. The proximate composition was recorded with dry matter having the highest percentage which was followed by carbohydrate, crude protein and then moisture content. The result also shows that ash content and crude fibre are non-significantly (p>0.05) different from each other, while ether extract had the least percentage. The vitamin composition of the plant as seen in fig. 3 shows that vitamin C is significantly (p<0.05) higher than other vitamins. Vitamins A, B1 and B2 has no significant (p>0.05) difference when compared among each other while vitamin E has the least value and significantly (p<0.05) different from other vitamins, while the minerals result shows that shows that potassium is significantly (p<0.05) higher than other minerals, followed by calcium which is significantly (p<0.05) higher than magnesium, sodium and iron. Magnesium is also significantly (p<0.05) higher than sodium and iron while sodium is significantly (p<0.05) higher than iron. The results showed that fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides contains varying concentrations of chemical, elemental and macronutrient components. As such, they can serve as good sources of useful elements. The leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides could also have better anti-oxidant properties when compared to others and as such could be recommended for some evaluation of other biological properties in vitro and in vivo.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement s v
Table
of Contents vi
List of
Figures ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
of the Study 1
1.2 Statement
of the Problem 4
1.3 Aim and
Objective of the Study 4
1.3.1 Aim of
the study 4
1.3.2
Specific Objective 5
1.4 Justification
of the Study 5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.1
Overview of Pterocarpus spp 6
2.2
Species 7
2.3
Botanical Distribution 8
2.4 Common Uses of Pterocarpus santalinoides Linn 10
2.5
Phytochemicals 12
2.6
Biological Activities of Phytochemicals 12
2.7
Classification of Phytochemicals 13
2.7.1
Phenolics 14
2.7.1.1
Activity of Phenolic Acids 15
2.7.2
Flavonoids 15
2.7.2.1
Activity of Flavonoids 16
2.7.3
Tannin 17
2.7.3.1
Activity of Tannins 17
2.7.4
Alkaloids 18
2.7.4.1
Activity of Alkaloids 18
2.7.5 Terpenoids 19
2.7.5.1
Activity of Terpenes 19
2.7.6
Saponin 20
2.7.6.1
Activity of Saponins 21
2.8
Proximate 22
2.8.1
Ash 22
2.8.2 Crude
fibre 22
2.8.3
Proteins 22
2.9
Definition of Vitamins 23
2.9.1
General Classification of Vitamins 23
2.9.2
Importance of Vitamins 23
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS
AND METHODS
3.1
Materials 25
3.1.2
Reagents and Chemicals 25
3.1.3
Apparatus 26
3.1.4 Preparation
of Plant Materials 26
3.2
Methods 27
3.2.1
Determination of Moisture Content 27
3.2.2
Determination of Ash Content 27
3.2.3 Determination
of Fat Content 28
3.2.4
Determination of Crude Fibre 29
3.2.5
Determination of Protein Content 30
3.2.6
Carbohydrate 31
3.3
Quantitative Phytochemical Analysis 31
3.3.1
Determination of Alkaloid 31
3.3.2
Determination of Tannin 32
3.3.3
Determination of Flavonoid 33
3.3.4
Determination of Phenol 33
3.3.5 Determination of Oxalates 34
3.4
Provitamin a Determination 35
3.5
Determination of Vitamin C 36
3.6
Mineral Determination 37
CHAPTER
FOUR
RESULTS
AND INTERPRETATION
4.1.1 Phytochemical result of leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 39
4.1.2 Proximate result of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 40
4.1.3 Vitamins result of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 41
4.1.4 Minerals result of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 42
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Discussion 43
5.2 Conclusion and
Recommendations 50
REFERENCES
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1: Phytochemical result of leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 39
Fig 2: Proximate result of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 40
Fig 3: Vitamins result of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides 41
Fig 4: Minerals
result of fresh leaves of Pterocarpus
santalinoides 42
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
of the Study
In
developing countries such as Nigeria, vegetables are the cheapest and most
readily available sources of valuable nutrients such as proteins, vitamins and
minerals (Otitoju et al., 2014). They contain important food
constituents that can be used for body building, as sources of energy,
regulatory and protective materials as well as for the maintenance of overall
good health and prevention of diseases (Blessing et al., 2011). Vegetables
may be defined as the fresh portion of herbaceous plants that can be eaten
either in raw or cooked forms (Kalita et
al., 2014). They may be edible
leaves, stems, roots, fruits or seeds, with each group contributing to the diet
in its unique way. They are sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and
shoots.
Vegetables,
herbs and spices contain a wide variety of biologically active, non-nutritive
compounds known as phytochemicals (Sheetal and Jamuna, 2009). Phytochemicals
have been described as bioactive, non-nutrient compounds in fruits, vegetables,
grains and other plant foods that have been linked to reducing the risk of
major degenerative diseases (Liu, 2004). They are also known as plant-derived
chemicals, which are beneficial to human health and disease prevention (Onyeka
and Nwambekwe, 2007). Phytochemicals can have complementary and overlapping
actions including antioxidant, modulation of detoxification enzymes,
stimulation of the immune system, reduction of inflammation, modulation of
steroid metabolism, antibacterial, antihelmintic and antiviral effects in
humans (Johana, 2003).
The
nutritional and antinutritional constituent of the leaves of Pterocarpus spp
have been reported by Ujowundu et al., (2010) and Onyeka and Nwambakwe, (2007).
Ujowundu et al., (2013) reported that the leaves of Pterocarpus
spp among six other green leafy vegetables studied are the most enriched. The
leaves are good sources of alkaloids, flavonoids and tannins. This indicates
that the leaves of Pterocarpus spp can serve as antispasmodic, analgesic,
diuretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant agents (Uchegbu and Okwu, 2012;
Uchegbu et al., 2013). The leaves of Pterocarpus spp were also
reported to have adequate minerals and high amount of vitamins A, B1,
B2, B5, B6
and C. (Ujowundu et al., 2010). The decoction of this very plant is
used in treatment of fever which is accompanied by indigestion or diarrhea.
Decoction was given in case of malaria.
Vitamin
is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in
limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is
called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient
quantities and must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term “vitamin” is
conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For example,
ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other organisms.
Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems
(Ayodele et al., 2008).
Proximate
analysis studies the evaluation of plants. Plants are considered basic
nutritional sources as they contain protein, carbohydrates, fats, oils,
minerals, vitamins and water which are obligatory for growth and development in
humans and animals (Ukam, 2008).
Pterocarpus santalinoides
is one of the species of tree in the
legume family of Fabacea. It has a native to tropical western Africa and also
to South America (Osuagwu, 2008). The Nigerian species are trees with bright
yellow flowers and usually have alternate leaflets (Osuagwu, 2008). The fruit
pod has a usual irregular shape (Adetunji, 2007). It is a shade tree commonly
found along riverine forest in Africa and tropical South America. The plant can
also help in erosion control because of the type of root system as well as
nitrogen fixation (Tian et al., 1992). In Nigeria many indigenous plants
including Pterocarpus santalinoides are
used as food or medicine.
P.
santalinoides known as “Nturukpa” (Ibo) is used for soup making in the South
Eastern part of Nigeria. some tribes in the Eastern and Southern Nigeria use
the leaf extracts in the treatment of headaches, pains, fever, convulsions and
respiratory disorders and as antimicrobial agents as similarly reported for
Sansevieria trifasciata (Ogukwe et al., 2004).
The
bark of the plant plus the leaf is used in the management of sleeping sickness
in Ivory Coast. It is also used as an anti-abortive agent and in the treatment
of malaria and other infections such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia
coli. Barring a few studies on the anti-trypanosomal and antimicrobial
activities, no literature exists on the anti-diarrhoeal and other
gastrointestinal effects of this plant, either in humans or animals.
1.2 Statement
of the Problem
Various
medicinal plants have been implicated to cure different disease conditions
(Mensa et al., 2008; Isaiah et al., 2012). Most of these
plants are consumed as vegetables in some localities for their nutritional and
therapeutic purposes. However, there is paucity of scientific literature to
back-up these claims. Hence the study of Pterocarpus
santalinoides for its Nutritional and Phytochemical potential is very
imperative.
1.3 Aim
and Objective of the Study
1.3.1
Aim
of the study
The
main aim of this study was to evaluate the Nutritional and Phytochemical
properties of Pterocarpus santalinoides.
1.3.2 Specific Objective
Ø To
determine the proximate composition of Pterocarpus
santalinoides
Ø To
determine the vitamin composition of Pterocarpus
santalinoides
Ø To
determine the mineral composition of Pterocarpus
santalinoides
Ø To
determine the phytochemical composition of Pterocarpus
santalinoides
1.4 Justification
of the Study
There
are many plants including green leafy vegetables that have been implicated for
several health benefits and nutritional values to mankind, especially in Africa
where the traditional use of many of these plants are not well documented.
Vegetables are those herbaceous plants whose part or parts are eaten as
supporting food or main dishes and they may be aromatic, bitter or tasteless
(Mensah et al., 2008). The consumption of leafy vegetable is
part of Africans’ cultural heritage and they play important roles in the
tradition and food culture of African household.
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