TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page
Certification i
Dedication ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables 1-7 vi
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 1
1.1 Aims and Objective of Study - - - - - - 5
1.2 Study Hypothesis - - - - - - - - 6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review - - - - - - - 7
CHAPTER THREE
Materials and Methods
3.0 Study Area - - - - - - - - 13
3.1 Sample Collection - - - - - - - - 13
3.2 Serial Dilution - - - - - - - - 13
3.3 Sterilization of Materials - - - - - - - - 14
3.4 Preparation of Media - - - - - - - - 14
3.5 Culturing - - - - - - - - 15
3.6 Microbiological Evaluation - - - - - - - 15
3.7 Gram Staining Techniques - - - - - - - 16
3.8 Biochemical Tests - - - - - - - - 17
3.8.1 Oxidase Test - - - - - - - - 17
3.8.2 Catalase Test - - - - - - - - 17
3.8.3 Motility Test - - - - - - - - 17
3.8.4 Indole Test - - - - - - - - 18
3.8.5 Citrate Test - - - - - - - - 18
3.8.6 Coagulase Test - - - - - - - - 18
3.8.7 Urease Test - - - - - - - - 19
3.8.8 Triple Sugar iron Test - - - - - - - - 19
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Results - - - - - - - - - - 20
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Discussion, Recommendation and Conclusion - - - - - 28
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
LIST OF TABLES
No. Tittle
TABLE 1: Incidence of Bacterial Contamination of Nigeria Currencies In Umuahia Metropolis.
TABLE 2: Morphological Characteristics of the Isolates.
TABLE 3: Biochemical Characterization of Isolates
TABLE 4: Percentage Frequency of Occurrence of Bacterial Isolates (%)
TABLE 5: Standard Deviation and Mean Bacterial Load of Isolates (cfu/ml)
TABLE 6: Incidence of Fungal Contamination of Nigeria Currencies in Umuahia Metropolis.
TABLE 7: Macroscopic and Microscopic Morphological Characteristics of the Isolates.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Money is an invention of the human mind or a legal tender in Nigeria and the world at large. Before the introduction of money into this world, economic exchange was practiced by barter. The barter economy, which involves the direct exchange of one good for certain amount of a different good, is a simple economy where people produce goods either for self-consumption or for exchange with other goods which they want. However, the barter system is inconvenient as it involved much effort on the part of people in trying to exchange goods for services. The naira note is a mixture of 75% cotton and 25% linen (Gadsby, 1998). This money is in general use and therefore enjoys the backing of the federal government.
Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide (Uneke and Ogbu, 2007). In Nigeria, the currency notes are used for buying ready to eat food, uncooked meat from the market, charcoal, milk at a local store, drugs and are used in all sorts of trade. Many Nigerians do not care how dirty their fingers are when handling money (Mensah et al., 2002). The raw materials from which paper currencies are made also play a role in harboring high microbial load. As the studies have shown, those paper currencies are made of mixture of cotton and linen usually offers surface area for microorganisms to reside on both sides nevertheless, polymer-based paper currencies presented lower bacterial counts than the paper currencies. The contaminated currency notes go in circulation and contaminate the hands of others transmitting pathogenic organisms in the process (Uneke and Ogbu, 2007; Mensah et al., 2002). The Nigerian currency notes are often dirty, and even mutilated notes can be seen in circulation. The survival of various microorganisms on money and their transmission via the hands of food vendors is often overlooked as enteric disease reservoir (Michaels, 2002). Pathogenic microorganisms that may survive on the Nigerian currency notes may serve as a potential source of enteropathogens causing food poisoning because in Nigeria food vendors serve food with the hands and at the same time handle currency notes as they sell (Michaels, 2002; Cardoen et al., 2009; Lamichhane et al., 2009). Such practices transfer bacteria from currency notes to humans through food (Lamichhane et al., 2009; Ministry of Health, 2007; Reither et al., 2007).
The assessment of the potential of Nigerian currency notes to act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Currency notes obtained from four major areas in Umuahia metropolis were evaluated according to standard techniques. Bacteria that were isolated were Escherichia coli (65.3 percent), Streptococcus species (36.5%). Staphylococcus aureus (13.4%), Proteus species (13.4%), Bacillus species (11.5%), Salmonella species (9.6%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (7.6%) and Klebsiella species (7.6%).
Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, bacterial contamination and fungi contamination were both significantly more pervasive (99.7 percent and 30.7 percent, respectively) than they were among clean and mint currency notes. Lower denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher denomination notes, although the difference was statistically significant (p > .05). Bacterial contamination and fungal contamination were both most frequent in notes obtained from traders and transport workers. These results suggest that currency notes may be contaminated, especially with bacteria and fungi, and may serve as sources of infection. Personal hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended. Although most of the information presented in this project refers to situations within the Umuahia metropolis, environmental health and protection know boundaries. The Journal periodically runs International Perspectives to ensure the issues relevant to our international constituency, representing over 60 countries worldwide, are addressed. Our goal is to raise diverse issues of interest to everyone, irrespective of origin. A classic characteristic of human parasitic and bacterial agents is the evolution of routes for transmission to susceptible hosts. The environment plays a critical role in transmission to humans, with many environmental materials serving as vehicles (Anderson & May, 1997). Microbial contaminants may be transmitted directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects. These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels (Cooper, 1999).
The possibility that currency notes might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in the 1970s (Abrams & Waterman, 1972). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide. It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency, with lower denomination notes receiving the most handling due to the fact that they are exchanged many times. Although paper currency is made to take abuse (up to 4,000 folds in each direction) in most parts of the world, including in Nigeria.
Paper currency also provides a large surface area as a breeding ground for pathogens. Money on which pathogenic microorganisms might survive represents an often overlooked reservoir for enteric disease (Michaels, 2002). In most parts of the developed world, there is a popular belief that the simultaneous handling of food and money contributes to the incidence of food-related public health incidents (Food Science Australia [FSA], 2000). Over the last two decades, data indicating that simultaneous handling could indeed be a cause of sporadic foodborne-illness cases have accumulated from studies of the microbial status and survival of pathogens on coins and currency notes in Turkey (Goktas & Oktary, 1992); the United States (Dow Jones News, 1998; India (Singh, Thakur, Kalpana, & Goel, 2002); Egypt (EI-Dars & Hasssan, 2005); China (Xu, Moore, & Millar, 2005); and Rangoon, Myanmar (Khin, Phyu, Aung, & Aye, 1989). An investigation that was reported in 1997 and that involved swabbing and culturing from various coins and paper money collected at random from doctors, laboratory staff, and other employees at a New York hospital resulted in the recovery of many pathogenic microorganisms (Dow Jones News, 1998; FSA, 2000). The possibility of currency contamination with microorganisms has also been observed among food handlers. An assessment of the public health risk associated with the simultaneous handling of food and money in the food industry in Australia (Brady & Kelly, 2000) analyzed money handled by people who were also food handlers for the presence and levels of microorganisms. In the study, the presence of coagulase-positive staphylococci on the money surface was confirmed. This suggested that without hygienic intervention, human occupational activities, especially those involving simultaneous money handling, could introduce the risk of cross-contamination to foods (FSA, 2000). With a number of infectious intestinal diseases, a low dose of the infectious agent is capable of causing illness; therefore, failure of food service workers to adequately sanitize hands or use food-handling tools (tongs, spoons. utensils or bakery/serving papers) between the handling of money and the serving of food could put food service patrons at risk (Michaels, 2002).
Oddly, publications regarding the degree to which paper money is contaminated with bacteria are few and far between, as the authors found when they conducted a Medline search in December 2005 (Abrams & Waterman, 1972; El-Dars & Hassan, 2005; Goktas & Oktary, 1992; Jiang & Doyle, 1999; Khin et al., 1989; Michaels, 2002; Pope et al., 2002; Singh et al., 2002; Xu et al., 2005). Furthermore, the search found no documented study of the parasitological status of currency notes (as of December 2005). Scientific information on the contamination of money by microbial agents is also lacking in most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This dearth of information may have contributed to the absence of public health policies or legislation on currency usage, handling, and circulation in many parts of Africa Although the studies done in the United States and Australia have had no major impact on policies or legislation on currency handling and circulation in those countries, they have fostered a higher level of public awareness about the potential for currency contamination by microorganisms (Dow Jones News, 1998; FSA, 2000; Michaels; Jiang & Doyle; Pope et al.). In Nigeria, a whole division of the Department of Treasury deals with what is termed "mutilated currency," and the department Web site boasts many examples of beleaguered, burned, buried, water-damaged money (Siddique, 2003).
An aspect of food service that frequently causes comment, particularly among enlightened consumers, is the way a food handler prepares the food, takes money for the purchase, returns change to the customer, and then prepares food for the next customer.
This pattern is most noticeable in sandwich bar operations, but is by no means restricted to outlets of that type. Anything that gets on hands can get on money. The study reported here, therefore, was designed to add to the limited body of literature on microbial contamination of currency notes and to address growing community concerns about the risks associated with microbial contamination and handling of money worldwide.
1.1 AIM OF STUDY
· To enlighten the entire populace of the inherent risk that naira notes carry by being a universal medium for the transfer of harmful pathogenic organisms.
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
· To isolate and identify pathogenic organisms on naira notes
· To Quantify the level of bacterial contamination in paper and polymer naira notes
· To determine the percentage (%) occurrence of the contamination.
· To evaluate the Microbial load associated with the contaminants
The currency samples were obtained from four major metropolises (Ndoro, Umudike, Ibeku, and Amawom). The notes came from various sources, including Traders, Students, Transport workers, and civil servants. The samples were randomly obtained by purchasing an item or paying for a service using a large-denomination note, thus creating the need for change to be given. The change was placed in a sterile aluminum foil, the foil was sealed with a masking tape, and the sample was transported to the Laboratory of the Department of Microbiology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike for analysis.
1.3 STUDY HYPOTHESIS
· Nigeria currencies are potential vehicles for the transfer of pathogens that can cause infectious diseases.
· There is a significant relationship between the currency notes/polymers, Microorganisms and the environment.
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