ABSTRACT
The nematicidal effects of Agro-effluents (cowpea, cassava and maize effluents oil palm sludge and neem leaf extract) on root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) egg hatchability, juvenile mortality and on the management of root-knot nematode population and damage on okra (Abelmochus esculentus (L.) Moench) were investigated in petri dishes, pot and field experiments (April-June and August-October, 2018). The root-knot nematode egg hatchability and juvenile mortality experiment was laid out in a Completely Randomized Design in Petri dishes placed on a laboratory bench with six treatments replicated four times including the control. Each petri dish contained 30 eggs ml-1 of the root-knot nematode. The treatments include; cowpea effluent, cassava effluent, maize effluent, oil palm sludge and neem leaf extract. Tap water served as the control. The treatments were applied at the rate of 10 ml respectively. Number of egg hatched and juvenile mortality were observed for 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours. The pot experiment was arranged in a Completely Randomized Design using plastic pots with six treatments replicated four times including the control. Each seedling was inoculated with 1,000 nematode eggs. Similar treatments as egg hatchability and juvenile mortality, in addition to pots without inoculation were used. The treatments were applied at the rate of 10 ml per pot. Data collected included, growth parameters (plant height and number of leaves), pod yield (number of pods, and weight of pods), shoot and root parameters (fresh and dry shoot weight, and fresh root weight) nematode-induced galls and population (number of galls, final soil larva population and number of eggs in roots). The field experiments (the two seasons) were conducted in a land naturally infested with root-knot nematode and were laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with six treatments replicated four times, including the control. Similar treatments as in pot experiment, in addition to beds without treatment application were used. The treatments were applied at the rate of 10 ml per plant. Similar data as in the pot experiment, in addition to initial soil larva population were taken. Proximate composition analysis of the treated and untreated okra pods was done to determine its crude protein, fibre, fat, ash, carbohydrate and moisture content in the laboratory. Upto 0.5g, 3.00g, 3.00g, 1.00g, and 2.00g of the samples were taken, for the analysis of each constituent respectively. The experiments were replicated three times and arranged in a Completely Randomized Design. The data collected in the four experiments were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and means were compared using least significant Difference (LSD) at 5% probability level (P< 0.05) by using computer software “Genstat Dissovery Edition 4”. Results obtained at the end of the experiments was significant between the treatments in most cases, in comparism to the control.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Content vi
List of Tables vii
Abstract viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives of the Study 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Geographic origin and distribution of
okra 4
2.2 Agronomic requirements of okra 4
2.3 Importance of okra 5
2.4 Pest and disease incidence in okra 5
2.5 The life cycle of root-knot nematode 8
2.6 The
role of botanicals for the control of root-knot nematodes in okra. 9
2.6.1 Organic amendment 12
2.6.2 Use of agro-effluents in the plant growth
and disease control 12
2.6.3 Active ingredients and phytochemical contents
of agro-effluents
under investigation 15
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Experimental location 18
3.2 Experimental materials 18
3.3 The Experiments 19
3.3.1
Nematicidal effect of agro-effluents of
(cassava, cowpea, maize,
oil
palm sludge) and neem leaf extract on egg hatchability and
juvenile mortality of root-knot nematode. 19
3.3.2
Efficacy of agro-effluents of (cassava, cowpea, maize, oil palm sludge)
and
neem leaf extract on the growth and yield of okra infested with
root-
knot nematodes in pot experiment. 22
3.3.2.1 Planting of okra seeds 22
3.3.2.2 Inoculation of the okra plants with nematode
eggs 22
3.3.2.3 Treatment application 22
3.3.3
Effect of agro-effluents of (cassava, cowpea, maize, oil palm sludge)
and
neem leaf extract on the growth and yield of okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus L.) infested
with root-knot nematode in the field at early
planting season (april – june, 2018) and late planting season
(August–October, 2018) 25
3.3.3.1 Land Preparation 25
3.3.3.2 Planting of okra seeds 25
3.3.3.3 Treatment application 25
3.3.4 Effect of agro-effluents of (cassava, cowpea,
maize, oil palm sludge) and
Neem
leaf extract on the nutrient content of okra. 28
3.3.4.1
Determination of protein content 28
3.3.4.3
Determination of fat content 29
3.3.4.4
Determination of crude fibre content 30
3.3.4.5
Determination of moisture content 31
3.3.4.6
Determination of carbohydrate content 32
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results 33
4.2 Discussion
57
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 64
5.2 Recommendations 64
REFERENCE
LIST OF TABLES
1: Effects
of treatments on the juvenile mortality rate (%) of root-knot
Nematodes
(Meloidogyne SPP.) at different time intervals 34
2: Effects
of Treatments on the egg hatchability of root-knot nematodes
(Meloidogyne SPP.) at different time
intervals 36
3: Effects
of treatments on the galling and nematode population in soil and
roots of okra infested with root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.),
in pot experiment 38
4: Effects
of treatments on the vegetative growth and yield of okra, infested
with root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne SPP.) in the pot experiment 40
5: Effects
of treatments on the root and shoot weight of okra infested with
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyn
spp.) in pot experiment. 42
6: Effects
of treatments on the galling and nematode population in soil and
roots of okra, infested with root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in
early okra planting season 44
7: Effects
treatments on the vegetative growth and yield of okra infested with
root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in the early planting season 46
8: Effects
of treatments on the weight of root and shoot of okra, infested with
root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
spp.) in the early okra planting season 48
9: Effect
of treatments in the galling and nematode population in soil and
roots of okra, infested with root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in
late okra planting season 50
10: Effects
of treatments on the vegetative growth and yield of okra, infested
with root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in late planting season 52
11: Effect
of treatments on the weight of root and shoot of okra, infested
with
root-knot nematodes (meloidogyne
spp.) in late planting season 54
12: Effect
of treatments on the proximate composition of okra 56
LIST
OF PLATES
Plate Title Page
|
1a
|
Nematode egg
hatchability experiment arranged in a completely randomized design
|
21
|
|
1b
|
Nematode egg
mortality experiment arranged in a completely randomized design
|
21
|
|
2
|
The pot
experiment arranged in completely randomized design
|
24
|
|
3a
|
the field trial
during the early planting season (April-June, 2018)
|
27
|
|
3b
|
The field trial
during the late planting season (August-October,
2018)
|
27
|
|
4a
|
Root of untreated
plant, showing severe gall infection
|
62
|
|
4b
|
Root of oil palm
sludge treated plant, showing slight gall
infection
|
62
|
|
5a
|
Root of maize
effluent treated plant showing moderate gall
|
63
|
|
5b
|
Root of cassava
effluent treated plant showing slight gall infection
|
63
|
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Okra (Abelmochus
esculentus L. Moench), belongs to the family of Malvaceae. It is an annual herbaceous vegetable crop which
originated from the tropical Africa. It is commonly called a “perfect villager’s vegetable” due
to it robust nature, dietary fibre and discrete seed protein balance in
essential amino acids like lysine and tryptophan, which are needed in human
diet (Kumar et al., 2010). Okra is
usually grown for its immature green fruits which are rich in vitamins A and B,
protein and iodine, while the dried seeds roasted and ground are used as coffee
additive or substitute. The seeds of okra contains 14% edible oil and the
protein content varies between 15% and 25% (NARP, 1993). The pods are made up
of mucilaginous substance which serves as a means of increasing blood volume in
the body (Onunkun, 2012). It is widely
cultivated in various agro climatic zones, ranking fifth position as far as
area under vegetable production in the country is concerned (Kumar et al., 2012).
Regardless of being
considered as hardy crop, okra is usually attacked by several pests and pathogens.
Beyond the seen pests and diseases, the unseen enemies like plant parasitic
nematodes are of great economic importance, causing approximately 50% of the
total damage (Abbasi et al., 2008).
The extent of damage is influenced by the level of initial soil inoculum of
nematode and environmental factors. The nematode genera associated with okra
are Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica,
Rotylenchalus reniformis, Longidorus spp., Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Hoplolaimus spp., Hemicrinocemoid spp., Helicotylenchus spp., Tylenchorhynchus spp., Paratylenchus spp. and Pratylenchus spp.
(Shrivastav et al., 2012). Meloidogyne. incognita is the most occurring and distructive of them all, which
causes huge losses (Jain et al.,
2007; Katooli et al., 2010; Bolles
and Jonson, 2012).
Root-knot nematodes
are very difficult to curb (Chitwood, 2002), due to their high reproductive
rate (Ananhirunsalee et al., 1995),
and are usually protected in plant tissues due to their sedentary endoparasitic
nature, thereby causing huge losses, due to severe root galls, dead of plant,
root lesions, root and tuber necrosis etc. (EPPO, 2009). These losses
necessitate, the use of control measures. Chemical nematicide has been commonly
used by farmers to control plant parasitic nematodes, as it is very effective
and act quickly. However, they are highly toxic and persistence in the
environment and affect human health, wild life and beneficial organisms
(Anastasiadis et al., 2008). Recently
for sustainability of agriculture, researches have been tilted towards the use
of botanicals which are nontoxic to man and environment, biodegradable and
affordable to peasant farmers as an alternatives to chemical nematicides
(Papachristos and Stamopoulos, 2002). Agro-effluents have been generally used
as soil amendment for management of soil pathogens (Shiau et al., 1999). Most researchers have specifically reported the
suppression of root-knot nematode diseases, with the use of composted
agricultural wastes (McSorely and Gallaher, 1995; Oka and Yerumiyahu, 2002).
Several plant parts used as organic amendments have been proven to control
plant parasitic nematodes. Neem (Azadirachta
indica) is excellently known example
that releases pre-formed nematicidal constituents into the soil. Neem parts
such as leaf, seed kernel, seed powders, seed extracts, oil, saw dust and oil
cake in particular, have been reported to effectively control several species
of nematode (Akhtar, 1998). Utilization of extract of many higher plants have
been found promising, as they contain nematicidal properties (Chitwood, 2002).
Many researchers have
focused on the use of plants extracts as organic amendment, but little research
has been carried out on the use of agro-effluents to control plant-parasitic
nematodes. However, some research work done on the use of agro-effluents as an
organic amendment have been reported to significantly reduce root-knot
nematodes in plant roots and soils (Loumedjinon et al., 2006). Luckily, these have been proven to control plant
parasitic nematodes, as well as other diseases (Abubakar and Majeed, 2000;
Abubakar and Adamu, 2004; Hassan et al.,
2010). The benefits of organic incorporation includes, increase in soil
nutrients, improvement of soil texture and structure (Huang and Huang, 1993),
direct or indirect stimulation of predators and parasites of phyto-parasitic
nematodes (Kumar, 2007; Kumar et al.,
2005; Kumar and Singh, 2011), and the release of chemicals that act as
nematicides (Ahktar and Alam, 1993; Sukul, 1992). Usually, decrease in the
population of soil borne pathogen leads to a consequent increase in crop yield
(Akhtar, 1993).
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This
study was conducted to;
1.
determine the effect of Agro-effluents (cowpea effluent, cassava
effluent, maize effluent, and oil palm sludge) and Neem leaf extract on the Meloidogyne incognita egg hatchability
and Juvenile mortality.
2.
determine the efficacy of the Agro-effluents and Neem leaf extract on
the growth and yield of okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus (L.) infested with Meloidogyne
incognita.
3.
assess the effect of the Agro-effluents on the food components of okra
pods grown in meloidogyne incognita
infested field.
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