ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine
the effects gender
discrimination and misconception on the involvement of female students in
sporting activities in Ambrose Alli University. The descriptive survey research
method was used in carrying out this study. A total of one hundred (100)
students from all seven (7) departments in the faculty of education were
selected through simple random sampling technique. A self-structured
questionnaire was used to obtain information from the respondents. The study
found that the study found that religion, culture, family background, home
training/development, and peer group are the major causes of discrimination in
sports among female undergraduates, the study also revealed that female
athletes are experiencing media discrimination, less attention from school
authorities/management, and misunderstanding (role confusion/gender crisis). As
young ladies who are passionate about sports are sometimes viewed as women
trying to become men. It was
recommended that government should encourage participation in sports by
providing scholarship and other incentives to female athletes who excel in any
sports competition. Mass media should organize enlightenment programmes that
will mitigate the socio-cultural factors hindering women’s involvement in
sports. School management should give more attention to female participation in
sports, both in budgeting and in personnel management.
TABLE
OF CONTENT
Title
Page- - - - - - - - i
Certification- - - - - - - - iii
Dedication- - - - - - - - iv
Acknowledgement- - - - - - - v
Abstract- - - - - - - - viii
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
Background
to the Study- - - - - - 1
Statement
of problem- - - - - - - 3
Purpose
of the Study- - - - - - - 4
Research
Questions- - - - - - - 5
Scope
of the Study- - - - - - - 5
Limitation
of the Study - - - - - - 5
Significance
of the Study - - - - - 6
Definition
of Terms- - - - - - - 6
CHAPTER TWO:
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Concept
of Discrimination- - - - - - 7
Types
of Discrimination- - - - - - 13
Concept
of Misconception- - - - - - 16
Sports
and Sporting Activities- - - - - 18
Discrimination
and Misconception about Female in Sports- - 20
Common
misconception against female participation in sports- 26
Discrimination
and Misconception on female sports in Ambrose Alli University
-
- - - - - - - - 35
Summary
of Literature Review- - - - - 36
CHAPTER THREE:
METHODOLOGY
Research
Design of the study - - - - - 38
Population
of the study- - - - - - 38
Sample
and Sampling Technique- - - - - 39
Research
Instrument- - - - - - - 39
Validity
- - - - - - - - 39
Reliability- - - - - - - - 39
Method
of Data Collection - - - - - - 39
Method
of Data analysis - - - - - - 39
CHAPTER FOUR:
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Discussion
of Findings - - - - - 40
CHAPTER
FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary - - - - - - - 48
Conclusion- -- - - - - - - 50
Recommendations
- - - - - - - 50
REFERENCES- - - - - - - 51
Appendix- - - - - - - - 54
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Discrimination against women in the workplace has
been a widespread topic throughout society for quite a few years. According to
the National Partnership for Woman and Families (2017), women make 80 cents for
every dollar paid to men. While this number statistically represents the wage
discrimination women face throughout all industries, it is also important to
look at other discriminatory factors women face as well. More specifically in
the male-dominated sport industry, we see women represented in extremely low
numbers. While women may lack the interest to occupy jobs in this profession,
this does not entirely explain the underrepresentation. In 1972, Title IX was
passed which set out to promote equality in federally funded educational
institutions and was later applied to athletics. Before this law was enacted,
females coached 90+% of women’s teams. By 2014, that number has dropped to
43.4% (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). There are several factors that contribute
to this steep decline, most result from the stereotypes society instills in
males and females from a young age. The way men and women are raised influences
interests, careers, socialization, and views of the opposite gender. Due to
these societal factors, stereotypes are made and sexism becomes evident. This
leads to the low representation and ultimately alienation of women in the good
ole’ boys club, referred to as the sports industry.
According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary,
discrimination is defined as “the act of making or perceiving a difference”
(Discrimination, 2017). The phrase, “perceiving a difference” is the
challenging part of this definition because it is rather arbitrary. Another
difficult part of this concept of discrimination is where is the line drawn?
What is considered discrimination and do intentions matter? It is quite easy to
see the difference between a male and a female. Because it is easy to see this
difference, men and women are often raised differently, causing them to
associate differently, and are ultimately treated differently. So is it
considered discrimination if men make a difference because a woman is present,
even when they are trying to avoid being inappropriate? The concept of
discrimination is not a black or white, or a yes or no, matter, it seems quite
subjective the more you look into it. Which is why it is such a controversial
subject across all industries in the workplace. Looking into a male-dominated
industry such as the sports industry makes it even more complicated. In the
sports industry, there is this good ole’ boys club and many Human Resource rules
are thrown out the window.
Although men dominate the sport industry, the few
women in the industry tend to heavily occupy jobs in a limited number of
fields, which is referred to as gender clustering. Gender clustering into
particular fields in the sports industry is evident as well; “significantly
more males are responsible for facility and event management, media relations,
and marketing across all NCAA divisions, while females were disproportionately
found in academics and compliance” (Lumpkin, Dodd, Mcpherson, 2014). Careers in
academics and compliance seem to be stable, with less travelling and more
typical eight to five schedule; which is great for women who are held to their
family obligations. Not surprisingly, women are far underrepresented in the athletic
directors’ position, which happens to be one of the most powerful positions in
intercollegiate sports (Quarterman, Dupree, & Willis, 2006). In 2014, only
22.3% of athletic directors were women.
Furthermore, in Division I universities, only 10.6%
of females held the position of an athletic director (Acosta & Carpenter,
2014). According to the Federal Affirmative Action standards, the workplace
should reflect the population. Obviously in the case of the athletic director
position, this standard does not hold (Lapchick& Baker, 2015).
In many other positions throughout the sports
industry such as coaches, assistant coaches, and sports information directors,
women are still far underrepresented (Lapchick& Baker, 2016). According to
research conducted by Jerome, Aimee, and Willis (2006), the number of women in
the workplace has increased, however the number of women in management
positions has not maintained the same pace. These authors also cited a study
done by Rosenfield (1988), who found four consistent challenges women faced
when seeking to achieve top-level management positions. The challenges were:
competition, family obligations, being a woman, and the stereotype that women
were not willing to give enough time and effort needed to be in management positions.
(Rosenfield, 1988). These challenges make it quite difficult for women to
occupy a position in this industry, especially a higher management position.
Based on the underrepresentation of women and the association of masculinity
and sports, I hypothesize that discrimination plays a key role in women’s
ability to achieve and maintain a career in the sport industry. While women as
a whole may lack interest in this area, the barriers that women face when
pursuing these types of careers keep women from moving up into higher level
positions.
Statement of Problem
Gender
discrimination is as old as man himself right from the onset of ancient
civilization women have been streamlined into playing deputy and assisting
roles in everything else apart from cooking and birthing children. Although man
has come a long way and civilization is creating major alterations to systems
that have been idolized for ages, the
effect of gender discrimination still lingers in our society and more so in
sports than any other sector. The
foregoing depicts the world situation and surely in developing nations (among
which Nigeria finds herself), the case is rather worse. Right from the home the
female child is raised by default to avoid certain kinds of activities such as
playing football, running around with males, engaging in native combat plays
like traditional wrestling for children. This innocent upbringing creates in
the girl child a consciousness of delicate living and anything that requires
energy from her is a ‘’no go area’’. This eventually influences her line of
interest and career choice. In our secondary schools, for example there are all
kinds of sports competitions for the male child and the female child seems to
be relegated to track events and match-past. The researcher therefore has
observed that the level of involvement of females in sports is very low. As female
athletes accounts for less than 30% of all athletes in the university. For
example, in the 2017 Nigerian university games held at Benue state, the school
only had female representatives in athletics (1500m races and short-put) and
handball. Thus the researcher believes can be traced to misconceptions and
discriminations experienced at earlier stages of life by students. As a result
of the foregoing, the researcher thought it necessary to investigate gender
discrimination and misconception as it relates to sports involvement among
students in Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma.
Purpose of the Study
The
main purpose of this study is to examine gender discrimination and
misconception on the involvement of female students in sporting activities in
Ambrose Alli University. Specifically, the study aims at:
1. Identifying
the causes of discrimination in sports among female students in Ambrose Alli
University.
2. Finding
out the common misconceptions in sports among female students in Ambrose Alli
University.
3. Examining
the effect of gender misconception on the involvement of female undergraduates
in sporting activities in Ambrose Alli University.
Research Questions
1. What
are the causes of discrimination in sports among female undergraduates in Ambrose
Alli University?
2. Are
there misconceptions on the involvement of female students in sporting
activities?
3. What
are the common misconceptions on the involvement of female undergraduates in sporting
activities in Ambrose Alli University?
4. How
do these misconceptions affect the involvement of female undergraduates in
sporting activities in Ambrose Alli University?
Significance
of the study
It is expected that this study will
be beneficial in the following ways;
It
will provide necessary information and create awareness on the causes of
discrimination in sports among female students, the common misconceptions on
the involvement of females in sports, the effects of these misconceptions, and
the way forward
Scope
of Study
This study is limits itself to
examining gender discrimination and misconception onthe involvement of female
students in sporting activities in Ambrose Alli University Ekpoma.
Limitations of the Study
The
researcher envisages some likely problems in the course of this study such
as: Inability to get the appropriate
information from respondents, Failure, of respondents to return all
administered questionnaire, and
Irregular completion of the questionnaires which may lead to rejection
Operational Definition of Terms
Discrimination: The
act ofdiscriminating, discerning, distinguishing, or perceiving differences
between people of things.
Misconception:
A mistaken belief, a wrong idea.
Sport:
any athletic activity that uses physical skills often competitive.
Undergraduate:
A student at a university who has not yet received a degree.
Gender: A socio-cultural
phenomenon that divides people into various categories, such as “male and
female”, with each having associated dress, roles, stereotypes. etc.
Involvement:The
act of engaging thoroughly in an act or activity
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