ABSTRACT
A field trial was conducted at the research farms Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Abia State, South Eastern to evaluate the effect of selected botanicals on maize Leaf Spot and Streak Diseases in humid Umudike, South Eastern Nigeria in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with six treatments and three replicates. The objectives of the study were to: determine the disease severity and percentage incidence of maize leaf spot and streak diseases in humid Umudike, determine the efficacy of the selected botanicals on maize leaf spot and streak diseases and compare the effect of different selected botanicals on growth parameters and grain yield in the study area. Maize leaf spots and streak diseases were identified with a modified scale of Opera and Wokocha (2008) which were the major threat to maize crops amongst smallholder farmers in the study area, causing millions of losses annually. Cicadulina mbila were detected as the main vector of MSV. In addition to maize streak, the virus also infects wild grasses. Results obtained from the field experiment showed that the selected botanicals assessed reduced disease incidence and severity drastically at 5% probability when compared with the untreated (control). From the findings, the results reviewed that combination of Virat and Nutrimax reduced the incidence of maize leaf spot and streak diseases at (21.78%) as well as severity of leaf spot and streak diseases at (0.66%) (P> 0.05). It means that the selected botanicals were ecofriendly and cheap source of biopesticides in the management of maize leaf spot and streak diseases.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Abstract xi
CHAPTER
1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….1
1.1
Origin of Maize (Zea mays L.)……………………………...……………………………..1
1.2
Distribution of
Maize……………………….....……………………….………………….2
1.3
World Production of
Maize….…………………………………………………………….3
1.4
Economic Importance of
Maize…..……………………………………………………….4
1.5
Agronomic Practices
…………………...…………………………………………………5
1.5.1 Climate
and soil requirements for maize production …………………………………......5
1.5.2 Temperature
requirements………………………………………………………………...5
1.5.3 Rainfall
requirements…………………………………………………………………….
6
1.6
Statement of The
Problem…………………………………………………………………7
1.7
Justification of The
Study……………………………………………………………….....8
1.8
The
Objectives of This Study……………...…………………………………………........8
CHAPTER
2: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………9
2.1 Diseases of
Maize……………………………………….…………………………….......9
2.1.1 Maize
Stripe…………………………………………………………………………........ 9
2.1.2 Barley
Yellow Dwarf ……………………………………………………….....................10
2.1.3 Cassava
brown streak disease ………….…………………………………………...........11
2.1.4 Fusarium
Maize Ear Rot ………………………………………………………………...16
2.1.5 Aspergillus
Maize Ear Rot ……….………………………………………………………17
2.1.6 Maize
Smut …………………………………………………………….……………… 18
2.1.7 Combination
of extracts …………………………………………………………………19
2.1.8 Biological
control of rot organisms………………………………………………...........20
2.1.9 Use
of plant-derived pesticides in the control of postharvest Losses………………….…21
2.1.9.1 Extractants………………………………………………………………………………..23
CHAPTER
3: MATERIALS AND METHODS……………………………………………...26
3.1 Field Trial……………………………………………………………………….……….26
3.1.1 Study
Area………………………………………………………………….……………26
3.1.2 Field
Size, Preparation and Layout……………………………………………………....26
3.1.3 Source
of Planting Materials……………………………………………………………..26
3.1.4 Land preparation………………………………………………………………………....27
3.1.5 Planting
date……………………………………………………………………………...27
3.1.6 Spacing
and planting……………………………………………………………………..27
3.1.7 Seed
rate………………………………………………………………………….............27
3.1.8 Weed
Control…………………………………………………………………….............27
3.1.9 Harvesting………………………………………………………………………………..27
3.1.10 Yield……………………………………………………………………………………...28
3.2. Application of Plant Extracts in the Field…………………………………….………….28
3.3 Assessment
of Maize Leaf Spot Parameters …….………………………………………29
3.3.1 Disease
Assessments……………………………………………………………………..29
3.3.2 Disease
Severity…………………………………………………………………….........30
3.4 Statistical Analysis……………………………………………………………………….30
CHAPTER
4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS………………...............................................31
4.1 Field
work………………………………………………………………………………..31
4.2 Discussion
and findings………………………………………………………………….39
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………………...………….42
5.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….42
References
Appendix
LIST OF TABLES
4.1 Effect
of Plant Extracts on Maize Leaf Spot Diseases two (2) weeks after
application (TWAP). 31
4.2 Effect
of Plant Extracts on Maize Leaf Spot Diseases four (4) weeks after
application (FWAP). 33
4.3 Effect
of Plant Extracts on Maize Leaf Spot Diseases six (6) weeks after
application (SWAP). 35
4.4 Effect
of Plant Extract on Maize Leaf Spots Diseases eight (8) weeks after
application (EWAP). 37
LIST OF FIGURES
Oba Supper-6 Maize
Seeds for Planting…………………………………………………………54
Project
Site after Tillage……………...………………………………………………..………...55
Healthy
Maize Plant growing in the Field……………………...…………………………….….56
Maize
Leaves with Spot and Diseases………………………..………………………………….56
Plant
Extracts…………………………………………………………………………………….57
Disease
Rating Scale of 1-10………………………..……………………………………………57
Hybrid
Maize Seeds (Oba Super-6) at Harvest…………………..……………………………….58
CHAPTER 1
1.0.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
ORIGIN OF MAIZE
Maize
(Zea mays L.) belongs to the tribe Maydae, family Poaceae and was originated in Mexico and Central America. It
possesses somatic chromosome number of 20, a genome size of gigabase and more
than 32,000 genes (Schnable et al.
2009). Maize grows well in various agro ecologies and it is unparalleled to any
other crop due to its ability to adapt in diverse environments. It has emerged
as a crop of global importance owing to its multiple end uses as a human food
and livestock feed and serves as an important component for varied industrial
products. Besides, maize serves as a model organism for biological research
worldwide. Globally, about 1016.73 million metric tonnes of maize is produced
every year – the highest among major staple cereals (FAOSTAT, 2013). A major
portion of maize produced worldwide is used for animal consumption as it serves
as a vital source of proteins and calories to billions of people in developing
countries, particularly in Africa, Mesoamerica and Asia (Shiferaw et al. 2011). Furthermore, it is a
source of important vitamins and minerals to the human body. Along with rice
and wheat, maize provides at least 30 % of the food calories to more than 4.5
billion people in 94 developing countries. Maize provides over 20 % of total
calories in human diets in 21 countries and over 30 % in 12 countries that are
home to a total of more than 310 million people (Shiferaw et al. 2011). At present, the developed world uses more maize than
the developing world, but forecasts indicate that by the year 2050, the demand
for maize in the developing countries will double owing to the rapid growth in
poultry industry, the biggest driver of growth in maize production (Rosegrant et al. 2009; Prasanna 2014). Improved
maize hybrids with substantial increase in production per unit area are
required to feed the ever- growing population. Further, with changing climatic
conditions, several new biotic stresses have emerged and minor disease and
insect pests have become more prevalent and started inflicting more damages.
Among abiotic stresses drought, heat and water logging are the major one and
their simultaneous occurrence are now more frequent than ever. Germplasm
including wild relatives and landraces possess enormous potential as genetic
resource for harbouring important and novel alleles/genes. These valuable
germplasm can be systematically and effectively utilized in the crop
improvement programmes worldwide, to develop high yielding and nutritious maize
with resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses.
1.2 DISTRIBUTION OF MAIZE
The
Centre of origin for maize is the Mesoamerican region now called Mexico and
Central America (Watson and Dallwitz, 1992). Most historians are of the view
that maize was first domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico (Roney and
Hard 2009). Although maize pollen grains as old as 80,000 years have been
identified from Mexico City, archaeological records suggest that domestication
of maize is at least 6000 years old. However, a study by Matsuoka et al. (2002) has demonstrated that
maize arose from a single domestication in Southern Mexico about 9000 years ago
rather than the multiple independent domestication models. One major
contradictory observation is that maize cultivars closely related to
parviglumis are available in the Mexican highlands, whereas parviglumis is
generally endemic to the mid- to lowlands. Domestication of maize in the
highlands could be explained by the presence of parviglumis in the highlands at the time of domestication (Matsuoka
et al. 2002) but unlikely because of
cooler and drier climate existed at the time of domestication. The other
possibility could be that the early domesticate might have spread from lowlands
to highlands and subsequent distribution from highlands replaced lowland
populations (Piperno; 2003), which is also unlikely as it needs the highland
maize to outcompete existing well-adapted populations in lowlands.
1.3
WORLD PRODUCTION OF MAIZE
United
State of America (USA) produces the highest percentage of world maize with an
annual average production of 310 million metric tons. United States cultivates
43% of global maize. 30 million hectares of land is cultivated to maize in USA.
Other countries of high maize production include, China, which produces about
162.5 million metric tons of different varieties of maize, which gives about
20% of world maize production, with areas like Yuman and Kirin being the Corn
Belt. Brazil cultivates an average of 55 million metric tons of maize annually
(Smriti; 2015). Argentina, gives an annual average production of 20 million
tones with region like Pampa, being its production belt. India is the 6th maize
heavy producers, giving it annual average production at 18 million metric tons,
with areas like UP, Biharbeing the production belt. Mexico, France, South
Africa and Nigeria are also leading countries in maize production (Smriti;
2015).
Maize
is produced extensively in all agro-ecological zones of Nigeria, with its
largest production in the Northern part of the country. Yellow and white maize
are widely cultivated in Nigeria due to it adaptability. Maize production belt
of Nigeria include; Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Yobe including Obubra (Cross River
State), where the crop has been cultivated for multi-utilization. About
34-98.3m or 48% hectares of land is cultivated to Nigerian maize production.
Maize grain produced in Nigeria are sold as a commercial crop for industrial,
agro-based, medical, pharmaceutical and other related uses (Iken and Amusa;
2004).
1.4 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MAIZE
Maize
contains protein, crude fibre; ether extract and carbohydrate. Maize provides a
large amount of energy in the diet of man and animal (livestock). The crop
provides the body with amino acids, although it is deficient in some essential
amino acids like lysine and tryptophan. IITA (2001) reported 80% of
carbohydrate, 10% protein, 3.5% fibre, in addition to 2% mineral and vitamin
content in maize. Maize can be consumed in variety of ways; eaten when still
fresh on the cob after boiling or roasting, mill into flour (maize starch)
which is further baked into maize-related products. Maize starch has been
utilized in various ways, including the production of noodles. Edible oil which
is obtained from maize grain has a low level of saturated fatty acids compared
to other protein sources especially animal sources. IITA (2001) reported high-fructose content of
maize syrup and sweetener, which can be added to food to preserve its moisture
content, (Khawar, et al’; 2007).
Findings show that maize contains selenium that stimulates the thyroid gland
and improve the immunity of humans. Maize silk has served as a source of
treatment material in herbal medicine. According to Abdulrahaman and Kolawole; (2008),
maize extracts including maize silk have been used in the treatment of urinary
system disorder and kidney-related problems. The traditional Chinese uses maize
silk to treat cases of fluid retention and jaundice. Maize silk has been used
to improve blood pressure and support liver functioning as well as production
of bile. Different part of the crop like root has served as treatment materials
for abdomen irregularities. Over the years, in various parts of the world, the
crop extracts and decoct have been used as emollient for ulcer, wound,
swelling, vomiting, nausea and other related health casas (Dilip, and Aditya,
2013).
Maize
kernel provides oil, which can be used for domestic cooking, industrial
production of maize-related products, food additives, including its pharmaceutical
uses. Oladejo and Adetunji (2012) reported maize oil to have been used as an
anti-freeing material. Over the centuries, man keeps on unveiling new uses of
corn. Maize is pounded or ground into flour, made into maize-garri (mounded
maize) which is mixed with processed cassava, and eaten with soup. Maize
provides man with raw material for further advancement, as it multipurpose
nature provides a variety of uses. Maize industrial uses include; wet-milling,
production of ethanol, production of finish-goods that contains maize extracts,
production of bio-fuel/ bio-diesel. Maize has been utilized intensively in
livestock nutrition, the crop provides greater percentage of calories. Apart
from food, the crop is also useful as medicines; this was confirmed by the
findings of Abdulrahaman et al
(2008). IITA (2001) report indicates the potential of maize to produce large
volume of food and non-food-related products. Production of maize in Nigeria
has enhanced both food security and economic development, as the crop now
serves as a “cash crop”. The crop has been utilized by soil scientist as an
indicator crop in determining the fertility status of the soil (Kamara, et al., 2014). Maize can be used to
fight global hunger; this was also examined by Ayeni (1991); Degrande and
Duguma (2000) who reported that food production can be used to reduce human
hunger by cropping and utilization of maize.
1.5
AGRONOMIC PRACTICES
1.5.1 Climate and soil requirements for maize
production
Maize
is grown over a wide range of climatic conditions because of its many divergent
types.
1.5.2 Temperature requirements:
The
maize crop requires warmth throughout the period of its active life. The
greatest production potential lies in areas where isotherms in the warmest
month range between 21 and 27 °C. Maize does not grow well in areas where the
growing season temperature is less than 19 °C or where the average night
temperature falls below 14 °C. For this reason, proper timing of planting is
required for dry-season cropping under irrigation. Although maize can tolerate
high temperatures up to 35 °C, yields usually decrease if the high temperature
coincides with pollen shedding. Maize responds differently to changes in
temperature at different stages of growth. During germination, the optimal temperature
appears to be around 18 °C. Germination is low at temperatures below 14 °C,
which may occur during the dry harmattan period. Cool, wet weather encourages
many pathogens that cause seedling diseases and kernel rots (IITA 2001).
1.5.3 Rainfall requirements:
The
amount and distribution of rainfall are highly important factors in successful
production. A minimal range of 480–880 mm of well distributed rainfall is
adequate for maize, depending on the variety. The moisture requirements are
small during the early stages of development but increase rapidly up to the
flowering stage, before decreasing again as the crop matures. Maize is
especially sensitive to moisture stress during flowering when a short spell of
stress can reduce the crop yield by up to 30–35%. The ecological zones in
Nigeria have been demarcated, based on rainfall and vegetation cover, and
reflect divergence in cropping systems and production constraints. For the
savannas, three ecologies have been identified for maize production: the southern
and northern Guinea savannas and the Sudan savanna. Annual rainfall is about
1000 mm spread over 170 rainy days,
between late May and early October in the southern Guinea savanna. Rainfall is
about 800–900 mm spread over 150–160 rainy days. In the northern Guinea
savanna, annual rainfall is rarely up to 700 mm in the Sudan savanna, spread
over about 120 rainy days. The potential for production varies remarkably, as
well as the varieties adapted to these zones. The potential increases gradually
from the Sudan to the southern Guinea savanna zones (Kamara et al; 2014).
Description Of Oba Super
6
Oba
super 6 is a hybrid maize seed from Premier Seeds Company, a member of the Seed
Association of Nigeria (SEEDAN).
Characteristics
Ø High
yielding hybrid suitable for rain fed conditions
Ø Wider
adaptability, tolerant to low moisture stress and respond to high yield.
Ø Bold
attractive grains, good colour, good kernel quality.
Ø Yield
potential: 6-9 tons/hectare.
Ø Colour:
provitamin A (Yellow).
1.6 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Maize
(Zea mays L.) serves as a source of
livelihood to some farmers in Umudike. Most farmers lack botanical knowledge of
controlling maize leaf spot and streak diseases for better yield. The sourcing
of botanicals, usage, processing, application and its efficacy are yet known to
some farmers in the region. The main concern is that the level of maize leaf
spot and streak diseases cause’s economic losses to farmers are increasing
annually. And the losses includes:
Ø Monetary
losses
Ø Loss
in yield/ abnormal cobs or giving no yield at all
Ø Loss
in value
Ø High
increase in the cost of production
Ø Disease
transmission
Ø Creating
point of entry for other pathogens.
1.7 JUSTIFICATION
OF THE STUDY
In
maize streak disease, female leafhoppers are two to three times more capable of
transmitting the virus than males (Oluwafemi et al., 2007). Fertilized leafhoppers prefer wild grassed for
oviposition. MSV is neither seed borne nor mechanically transmissible through
piercing and sucking of juices from the host plant.
The
maize plants infected within the first three weeks after emergence become
severally stunted producing considerable abnormal cobs or giving no yield at
all. If infection occurs more than eight weeks after plant emergence, the virus
does not normally cause significant economic loss (Page et al 1999).
The
leaf spots develop into discontinuous pale yellow streaks, up to several
millimetres in length, along the blades, parallel to the veins or broken
chlorotic streaks on secondary or tertiary veins with primary veins being less
affected than secondary and tertiary veins. Information obtained from this
research will be useful to the people of Umudike and Abia State in particular
by providing them with the effect of selected botanicals in this popular
cereals (maize) produce in Umudike and dangers to farmers income without
control of the maize leaf spot and streak disease (Amadioha, 2012).
1.8 THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY WERE TO:
Ø determine
the disease severity and percentage incidence of maize leaf spot and streak
diseases in humid Umudike.
Ø determine
the efficacy of the selected botanicals on maize leaf spot and streak diseases.
Ø compare
the effect of different selected botanicals on growth parameters and grain
yield in the study area.
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