A GIS APPROACH TO CRIME MAPPING AND MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF WARRI METROPOLIS

A GIS APPROACH TO CRIME MAPPING AND MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF WARRI METROPOLIS

ABSTRACT

Crimes and criminal activities continue to be a major concern in contemporary society because it assumes different dimension as technological advancement increases in every nation of the world where humans coexist. This study examined the GIS approach to crime mapping and management in Warri metropolis with the aim of knowing the trend from 1999, the beginning of the fifth republic up to 2009 as well as the effectiveness of crime control and management by the Nigeria Police Force. Secondary data generated from the archives of the Nigeria Police Force for a period of eleven years was used. Collected data were analyzed for the study area which was divided into three prominent crime zones based on their prevalence by the use of GIS software (Arc-view 3.2 GIS environment) as well as statistical use of SPSS analysis of variance. The Arc-view 3.2 GIS environment was a veritable tool for the creation of spatial data and geo-referencing of information from the analogue map of the area. It was also used to carry out an overlay analysis. Results showed that in Warri metropolis, crimes of various types increased over the years from 1999 to. 2007 as a result of political activities that marked the 5th and 6th republics but with a little decrease from 2008 to 2009 in each zone of Effurun, Udu and Warri. Areas of high crimes for the period of 2015- 2020, were Effurun area comprising Alegbo quarters, Alaka quarters, Orumaro, Ekpan, Enerheri, Okiti, Ugbomro- DSC and Otokutu; which are areas of high socio-economic activities as well as the political hub of the metropolis. While in Warri area, Agbasa, Ekurede-Urhobo, Ekurede-Itsekiri, Okere, lyara and Cemetery were areas of moderate crimes. These areas of moderate crimes have markets, and other moderate economic activities. The low crime category is Udu area comprising Udu road, Old and New Ekete, Odibo Roundabout, Aladja, Orhuwhorun, which are mainly fringe zones with mostly vigilante groups that compliment the efforts of the police. There was significant variation in the nature of crimes committed in different zones of Warri metropolis. It was recommended that crime surveillance and effective management could be achieved when the Nigeria Police Force makes use of GIS produced maps, which give adequate information on how to reduce crime to the barest minimum in the area.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page - - - - - - - - - I

Title page - - - - - - - - - II

Declaration - - - - - - - - - III

Certification - - - - - - - - - IV

Acknowledgements - - - - - - - V

Dedication - - - - - - - - - VI

List of Figures - - - - - - - - - IX

List of Tables - - - - - - - - X

Abstract - - - - - - - - - XI

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - 4

1.3 Aim and Objectives - - - - - - - 8

1.4 Hypothesis - - - - - - - - 8

1.5 Significance of Study - - - - - - - 8

1.6 Study Area - - - - - - - - 9

1.6.1 Location and Size - - - - - - - 9

1.6.2 Geology, Soil and Drainage - - - - - 11

1.6.3 Climate and Vegetation - - - - - - 12

1.6.4 Population - - - - - - - - 13

1.6.5 Socio-Economic Activities - - - -- - - 13

1.7 Scope - - - - - - - - - - 14

CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical Framework and Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 15

2.2 Literature Review - - - - - - - - 21

CHAPTER THREE: Research

3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - - 35

3.2 Types of Data - - - - - - - - 35

3.3 Sampling Framework - - - - - - - 35

3.4 Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - 37

3.5 Creation of Spatial Data - - - - - - 37

3.6 Statistical Analysis - - - - - - - - 39

CHAPTER FOUR: Presentation of Data and Discussion

4.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - 40

4.2 Trend of Crime in Warri metropolis from 1999-2009 - - 40

4.3 Testing of Hypothesis - - - - - - 51

4.4 Cnme Maps of Warri metropolis Produced with GIS - - 52

4.5 Spatial Distribution of Crimes in Wan-i metropolis - - - 56

4.6 The role of Nigeria Police in crime management - - 57

CHAPTER FIVE: Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Summary of Findings - - - - - - 59

5.2 Contribution to knowledge - - - - - - 60

5.3 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 61

5.4 Recommendations - - - - - - - 62

5.5 Suggestion for Further Studies - - - - - 62

References - - - - - - - - 63

Appendix - - - - - - - - 76

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Criminal activity continues to be a major concern in contemporary society (Fajemirokun, Adewale, Idowu, Oyewusi and Maiyegun, 2006). However, high crime rates are not unique features of a few nations, but a statistically normal feature of life all over the world. Research efforts seeking to explain the geographic variation in the rate of crime has been on-going for more than 150 years (Eck and Weisburd, 2009). The existence of crime is as old as the creation of man itself and man has always looked for ways to combat it and reduce it as much as possible (Fajemirokun et al., 2006). The occurrence of criminal activities in the form of thefts, assaults, homicide, etc. is something that takes place every day in almost all reaches of our world.

Crime is an act or omission that violates the law and is punishable upon conviction (Ratcliffe, 2008). It includes criminal code offences against a person or property, drug offences, motor vehicle offences and other provincial or federal statute offences. Crime is that form of deviance that involves an infraction of the criminal law. Disorderly behaviour such as aggressive panhandle, public urination and sleeping in the street are not necessarily criminal acts, but they do affect communities by a gradual erosion of the quality of life. Crime has an inherent geographical quality.

When a crime occurs, it happens at a place with a geographical location. For someone to have committed a crime, they must have also come from a place (such as their home, work or school). This place could be the same location where the crime was committed or is often close to where the crime was perpetrated (Frisbie, Fishbine, Hintz, Joelson and Nutter, 2012; Brantingham and Brantingham, 2010; Rossmo, 2000; Wiles and Costello, 2000). ‘Place’ therefore plays a vital role in understanding crime and how crime can be tackled. The study of crime has traditionally been the preserve of other disciplines such as sociology and psychology (Georges, 2020) and it was not until the late 1970s that the ‘place’ and the spatial dimension to crime began to be more filly explored. The police have long recognized the inherent geographical component of crime by sticking pins into maps displayed on walls, where each pin represented a crime event, but there were studies such as those from the ‘Chicago School’ of the 1930s (Shaw and McKay, 2010, Harries,2012; Markovic and Stone, 2002) which first demonstrated the importance of geography in understanding crime.

Criminal activity continues to be a major concern in contemporary society. Most nations are faced with unacceptable levels of delinquency and crime. In many of the world’s industrialized countries crime rates recorded by the police are many times those recorded 30 years ago. The International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS) has collected data on 55 countries, spread over six major world regions including Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America, and Western Europe. Findings showed that for the 1989—1996 periods, more than half of the urban respondents reported being victimized at least once regardless of what part of the world they inhabit (Ackerman and Murray, 2004). Also, it was stated that high crime rates are not unique features of a few nations, but a statistically normal feature of life all over the world. Research efforts seeking to explain the geographic variation in the rate of crime has been ongoing for more than 150 years (Eck and Weisburd, 2002).

The existence of crime is as old as the creation of man itself and man has always looked for ways to combat it and reduce it as much as possible. The occurrence of criminal activity in the form of thefts, assaults, homicide, etc. is something that takes place every day in almost all parts of our world. There is a great deal of debate on the causes of cñme. In the 1980s, the rate of crime occurrence grew sharply to nearly epidemic proportions, particularly in Lagos and other urbanized areas due to population explosion by stark economic inequality and deprivation, social disorganization, inadequate government service and law enforcement incapability, unemployment, socio-political conditions, etc (Murray, Antunes, and Maxfield, 2001). A community with a high rate of criminal activities is unattractive or less attractive to both local and foreign investors and this is the present situation that prevails in parts of Nigeria. The Nigerian security agents, especially Nigerian Policemen, are not particularly effective in foreseeing where and when specific future crimes will take place.

Geographic Information System (GIS) now combine these maps (in digital form) with all the data from all relevant institutions. For instance, instead of having a cadastral map here and a land book there, parcel map and ownership data are combined in one system. GIS technology, by high-end spatial analysis and querying, highlights the crime location, any physical boundaries that were present (that might not otherwise be noticed), and the types of roads and highways that come into both the abduction and body dump sites (Karthik, 2004). GIS can also accelerate any kind of organization’s many daily procedures and through quick supply of up-to-date data, support decision making on many important topics while ensuring high quality delivery to end users (Cahill, 2005).

Like the field of geography, the term Geographic Information System (GIS) is hard to define. It represents the integration of many subject areas. Accordingly there is no absolutely agreed upon definition of a GIS (DeMers, 2014). A broadly accepted definition of GIS is the one provided by the National Centre of Geographic Information and Analysis stating that A GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modelling, representation and display of geo-referenced data to solve complex problems regarding planning and management of resources (National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis [NCGIA], 2008):

Geographic information system has emerged in the last decade as an essential tool for urban and resource planning and management. Their capacity to store, retrieve, analyse, model and map large areas with huge volumes of spatial data has led to an extraordinary proliferation of applications. Geographic information systems are now used for land use planning, utilities management, ecosystems modelling, landscape assessment and planning, transportation and infrastructure planning, market analysis, visual impact analysis, facilities management, tax assessment, real estate analysis, crime mapping and analysis and many other applications (GIS team, 2005).

Different schools of thought have had different and varied definitions for Geographic Information system (GIS). Tomlin (2007) defines a GIS as ‘a configuration of computer hardware and software specially designed for the acquisition, maintenance and use of cartographic data’. Burrough (2013) sees GIS as a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can also be seen as a computerized system that deals with spatial data in terms of their collection, storage, management, retrieval, conversion, analysis, modelling, and display/output. It evolved as means of assembling and analyzing diverse spatial data.

A Geographic Information System (GIS) as a tool can be used by police personnel to plan effectively for emergency response, determine mitigation priorities, analyse historical events, and predict future events. GIS can also be used to get critical information to emergency responders upon dispatch or while en route to an incident to assist in tactical planning and response. GIS helps identify potential suspects to increase investigators suspect base when no leads are evident. Response capabilities often rely on a variety of data from multiple agencies and sources. The ability to access and process information quickly while displaying it in a spatial and visual medium allows agencies to allocate resources quickly and more effectively. GIS software helps co-ordinate vast amounts-of location-based data from multiple sources. It enables the user to create layers for the data and view the data most critical to the particular issue or mission (Johnson, 2000). GIS helps crime officers determine potential crime sites by examining complex seemingly unrelated criteria and displaying them all in a graphical, layered, spatial interface or map (Johnson, 2000).

1.2. Statement of the Research Problem

The level of development in any community depends to a large extent on its state of security. Over the years the rate of crime in Nigeria has been on the increase and these crimes are being carried out with more perfection and sophistication. The rate of gun violence in Nigeria today is so high that it is difficult to over look it as we claim to be in peace, especially within the Niger Delta Region. Guns are used in almost all the homicides, assaults, threats, robberies, sexual offences and suicides, committed in this country (Mbagwu and Ajala, 2009).

Firearms are clearly a common tool for perpetrating societal violence. The impacts of gun violence, however, are not limited to fatal and non-fatal firearm injuries, but include a wide variety of small arm-related crimes committed either by individuals or by the state (police and paramilitary) and these can threaten the community’s physical, economic, social, political, and cultural security. The impact of such violence on access to infrastructure, employment, healthcare, education, social welfare and development is profound, and overwhelming (Mbagwu and Ajala., 2009).

Due to lack of adequate and modem technology and sufficient manpower, the Nigerian security agents have not been able to effectively tackle the issue of crime in the country. This has led to the formation of various vigilante groups, to combat crimes in some parts of the country. However, these groups have only succeeded in creating other problems instead of solving the existing ones (Fajemirokun et at., 2006). For instance it is against this background of failure by the Nigeria Police to protect citizens from violent robberies, the Governor of Anambra State in 2002 adopted a radical solution. He invited a private vigilante group, the Bakassi Boys, to form the basis of a state vigilante service. Within a space of one year, armed robbery had been reduced to a minimum in that area. But the venture was not unproblematic.

First, it brought to the fore a power struggle between the federal and state levels of government and between the Nigeria Police and those in the local community concerned with security. More seriously, for all its local popularity, the group’s use of counter-violence and their scant regard for the law or human rights has serious implications for democracy.

Locating such state vigilante services within sociological theory is not straightforward, but a number of approaches to explaining the phenomenon are considered in the light of the account. Although this type of security arrangements is increasingly being used as a model of internal security across Nigeria, its lack of accountability and attitude to the rule of law disqualify it from being a valid alternative policing strategy within a democracy.

Over the last ten years, there has been a growth in crime levels, increase in public fears about safety and declining service delivery from public police (who in turn are battling with cuts in finding, manpower shortages and lack of resources). Many people and organizations in Nigeria (private security industry, municipal authorities, businesses, the public and even the police themselves) in some form or another utilize and make use of the resources offered by the private security industry in the fight against crime. In particular such security services revolve around security in villages, semi-urban areas and armed patrols of residential areas by private security personnel.

Among the more visible replacement of police in certain security functions have been those responding to alarms; surveillance services, certain types of investigation services; security’s services at semi-urban neighborhoods, Substantial neighborhood crime In urban areas occurs most frequently in stressful and disadvantaged areas with disproportional concentration of poverty, unemployment, and minority populations (Ackerman, 2010; Anselin, Cohen, Cook, Gorr, and Tita 2000; Kershaw and Tseloni, 2005; Osborn, Tnckett, and Elder, 2015). This is the case of most of the crimes committed in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria of which Warri is no exception where such crimes as stealing, murder, rape, armed robbery cases, vehicle snatching, abduction, bank frauds and other juvenile cases are prominent in the Effurun, Udu and Warri areas.

During the Warri crisis in 1997 and 1998, oil company installations were attacked and company workers were abducted by warring youths (Ofuoku, 2013). A huge ransom was paid by the companies to secure the freedom of their workers. Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) for example, was reported to have paid the sum of N250, 000 to Ijaw youths to secure the freedom of its workers who had been abducted (Ofuoku, 2019).

In 2003, when the Warri crisis raged anew, Nigeria was reported to be losing over 40 percent of its oil production, an equivalent of 800, 000 barrels per day of exportable crude oil. Consequently several oil companies, namely SPDC, Chevron, Texaco and Total FinaElf were forced to declare force majetire in order to protect their oil installations (Ologbondiya, 2003). Given ihe mono-cultural nature of the Nigerian economy, it is not difficult to understand how and why the crisis in the Delta region can be so harmful to the fiscal health of a prostrate economy. Similarly, for the oil corporations, this crisis greatly limited the amount of profit they could make on their investments in the Nigerian oil industry. Crime remains elusive and strives to hide itself in the face of development (i.e. very difficult to curb).

As measures and techniques for detecting crimes and criminals advance, criminals also look for means of hiding from these measures — the Internet currently serve as a hiding place for fraudsters who have simply migrated from the streets to an electronic platform offered by the world wide web. Different nations have adopted different strategies to contend with crimes depending on their nature and extent. Certainly, a nation with high incidence of crime cannot grow or develop. That is so because crime is the direct opposite of development. It leaves a negative social and economic consequence (Sylvester, 2001).

The traditional and age-old system of intelligence and criminal record maintenance has failed to live up to the requirements of the existing crime scenario. Manual processes neither provide accurate, reliable and comprehensive data round the clock nor does it help in trend prediction and decision support. It also results in lower productivity and ineffective utilisation of manpower. The solution to this ever- increasing problem lies in the effective use of Information Technology (Fajemirokun et al., 2006).

Currently, GIS is not being used for crime control and management in Nigeria. This is probably due to the lack of awareness of the benefits offered by GIS in crime control and management in the country. Based on the aforementioned problems and the limited work on Crime mapping and management in Nigeria with serious emphasis on using GIS as a decision support tool which can aid effective policing through the detection of areas in the Warri metropolis that are prone to various crimes (crime hot spots) whether they are minor or major crimes. This study examines reported crime in the study area from 2015-2020, (a period of twenty years) which marked the beginning of the forth republic in Nigeria where through the democratic process, a lot of political interventions played out to free arrested criminals which hitherto was not the case in the third republic.

The use of GIS for crime mapping in Warri metropolis was necessitated by the porous nature of policing in the study area which has been one of the crime hot spots of the country. Secondly, the use of GIS in crime mapping in this study was to take advantage of available modern technology in checkmating crime which hitherto was only done using non interactive and often anachronistic analogue maps of the study area. With the GIS approach, areas of crime hot spot and flash points have different shades of colours which can help the Nigeria Police Force in the deployment of patrol troop based on seriousness of need and not merely patrolling all routes/roads as was presently done by the law enforcement agent of government.

1.3. Aim and Objectives of the Study

The study is aimed at examining the GIS approach to crime mapping and management in Warri metropolis, Delta State. Thus, the specific objectives are:

i. To examine the trend of crimes in Warri metropolis from 2015-2020

ii. To create a crime map of the area using GIS as a tool.

iii. To examine the spatial distribution of crimes in Warri metropolis

iv. To examine the role of Nigeria Police in crime management

v. To proffer suggestions to reducing crime in Warri metropolis using the GIS approach.

1.4. Hypothesis

In the light of the above objectives, this hypothesis was posited:

H0: There is no significant variation in crimes reported in the different areas of Warri metropolis.

1.5. Significance of the Study

This study evaluates the effectiveness of Geographical Information System (GIS) as a decision making tool in crime mapping in Warri metropolis. Hence, as a tool, it can be used by police personnel to plan effectively for emergency response, determine mitigation priorities, analyses historical events, and predict finitude events. Thus, this study enhances information on crime detection and assisting the Police force and other emergency responders upon dispatch or while in route to an incident to assist in tactical planning and response.

It is of significance in the ‘mission-critical’ nature of law enforcement. This kind of security assignment requires information about the location of a crime, incident, suspect, or victim is often crucial to determine the manner and size of the response. GIS produced crime maps helps crime officers determine potential crime sites by examining complex seemingly unrelated criteria and displaying them all in a graphical, layered, spatial interface or map. It also helps them map inmate populations, fixtures, and equipment to provide for the safety of inmates by separating gang members, identifying high-risk or potentially violent inmates, and identifying hazardous locations in an area as well as a reference work to others who intend to carry out work on this aspects. It is hoped that the results of this research will go a long way in helping the Police force and other emergency responses to combat crimes effectively in Warri metropolis which will lead to serious crime reductions in that volatile region of the Niger Delta. This study is important and relevant because it has brought to limelight the fact that crimes are not just more common in the Warri metropolis but new crimes such as kidnapping is being experienced in the area with its attendant societal ills in terms of creation of fear of movement and security in the area as well as scaring away expatriates and foreign investor.

1.6. Study Area.

1.6.1. Location and Size

Warri metropolis is located between Latitudes 5°30’N and 5°35’ N and Longitudes 5°29’E and 5°48’E. The study area is situated within the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. It is bounded to the North by Okpe and Sapele Local Govermnent Areas, to the South by Warri South West and Ughelli South Local Government Area, to the East by Ughelli South and Ughelli North Local Government Area and to the West by Warri South West Local Government Area (Fig 1.1). Warri Metropolis is made up of Warri South, Udu and Uwie Local Government Areas (Fig 1.2). The area expansion of Warri during the past two decades has been remarkable. From a small river settlement, Warri has grown to cover thç surrounding towns of Effurun, Ekpan, Enerhen, Edjeba, Ogunu, Jakpa, Ovwian-Aladja, Udu Road, etc. with the results that Warri is now about 31,668 square km (Efe, 2017).

1.6.2 Geology, Soil and Drainage

Warri metropolis is situated within the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, which has the Agbada, Akata and Benin geologic Formation. The rocks found in the area are of sedimentary origin. The soils are classified according to the U.S. soil Taxonomy System as alfisols, oxisols, ultisols, alfisols and spodosols (Soil Survey Staff, 2019). The alfisols are moderately fertile soil; oxisols/ultisols are infertile, while the spodosols and psamments are mainly sandy soils. Warri has a flat terrain of about 6m above sea level and located at the Shore of Warri River. The area characterized by hydromorphic soils which is a mixture of course alluvial and colluvial deposits (Okoye, Schouten and O’sullivian, 2016; Efe, 2017). Near the Atlantic coast, its flat and low relief feature results in water stagnating on the ground surface. The Warri River and two creeks that lead to Rivers Forcados and Escravos drain the area too. Thus, reflects the rate of percolation and infiltration of water into the soil. This attribute makes Warri a preferred choice for human habitation thereby increasing the population through urbanization which means more pressure on social infrastructure, more life challenges and more crime.

1.6.3 Climate and Vegetation

The area is characterised by tropical equatorial climate with mean annual temperature of 27.44°C and rainfall amount of 275.21mm. Rainfall period ranges from April-October, with the minimum value of 20.4mm in January and over 499.1mm in September. However, double rain maxima between the months of July and September are observed. There is a little dry spell in the month of August called August break. Convectional type of rainfall is predominant in the city. The predominant wind system in Warri metropolis is the tropical Maritime Air Mass (MT). This air mass is humid and moist, and brings rainfall into this environment. The influence of the Tropical Continent (CT) ir mass is minimal; it brings in harmattan in the area between December and February. This climatic mix accounts for the natural crime characteristics of the area.

The natural vegetation is of rainforest with swamp forest in some areas. The forest is rich in timber trees, palm trees, as well as fruit trees. Unfortunately, much of the rain forest has been destroyed as a result of farming, commercial lumbering and urbanization. However, there is still a fairly large area of swamp forest vegetation. Thus, the climate and vegetation influences the nature of crime in the area because the vegetation can be a good source of hideouts for the criminals.

1.6.4 Population

There have been a tremendous growth in the population; it has grown from being a rural area to an urban area. Warri metropolis is one of the rapidly growing cities in Nigeria, with a population rising rapidly from 280,000 in 1980, 500,000 in 1991 to 638,250 in 2006 (NPC, 2017) and estimated at 730, 000 (Ojeh, 2011). It has a high population density that is concentrated in the core areas of the city. These areas include; Warri-Sapele road, Agbassa, Okere, Okumgba Avenue, Igbudu, lyara, Jakpa Airport road, P.T.I. road, Udu and Ekpan. Thus, the population of the area will increase the pressure on resources mostly around the slums that may trigger crimes when people want to get things by all means.

1.6.5 Socio-Economic Activities

Warri is an administrative centre, health centre, commercial centre and educational centre. The socio-economic activities in Warri are classified into: the primary activities which are agricultural activities such as farming, livestock farming, etc. The people of Warri grow crops such as Corn, Cassava, Okro etc. for consumption i.e. they are mainly subsistence farmers or agriculturist. The secondary activities are basically the processing activities such as carpentry, tailoring, carving, etc. which is the conversion of raw materials into finished goods. Small-sale industries are prevalent especially in agro-allied and metal work.

Warri is an oil city with many multinational oil companies such as SPDC, Chevron, and home based oil and gas companies such as Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Company (WRPC), Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), exploiting oil and flaring of gas (Tamuno, 2009). Service companies in Warri are varied and numerous among which are Banks such as Oceanic Bank Plc, Zenith Bank Plc, Intercontinental Bank Plc among others, which provide banking service and Insurance companies in the area. The Insurance companies include IGI Insurance, Equity life Assurance, Intercontinental-Wapic Insurance, Investment and Allied Assurance to mention but few.

1.7. Scope

The use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology to map crime is a rapidly expanding field that is still in a developmental stage, and a number of technical and ethical issues remain to be resolved. This study covers a GIS approach to crime mapping and management in Warri metropolis, Delta state. The study entails the assessment of the extent to which crime is being committed, the nature and types of crime, the role of the Nigerian Police Force in crime control as well as the effective way to manage crime in the study area such as the use of GIS to map and detect crime hot spots for effective policing aimed at crime reduction etc. This study however is not about crime monitoring but restricted to mapping and control of both minor and major crimes.