ABSTRACT
The objectives of this project were to extract essential oil from red pepper (Capsicum annum) using three different methods and to determine which method yielded more quantity of oil and also to produce a perfume from the extracts. The whole fruit of red pepper was used in the extraction and the extraction by hot method using n-hexane as solvent was found to yield more in percent yield than the other methods of extraction such as cold method using n-hexane as solvent and the hydrodistillation methods (Fernández-Ronco et al., 2010). The extracts from the three methods have properties within acceptable standards as shown by Kayla et al., (2006) and Raimi et al., (2014). A light classic perfume was produced from the extracts which was in line with similar work done by Raimi et al., (2014).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification
iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements
v
Table of contents vi
List of Tables ix
List of Figures x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background
Information 3
1.3 Statement
of the Problem 5
1.4 Justification
of the Research 6
1.5 Aim and Objective of the Research 6
1.6 Scope
of the Research 6
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8
2.1 The History of Perfumery 8
2.2 Concentration of Perfume 10
2.3 Sources of Perfumes 10
2.3.1 Plant
sources 10
2.3.2 Animal sources 12
2.3.3 Other natural sources 13
2.4.0 Synthetic
sources 13
2.5 Essential Oils 14
2.5.1. Sources of essential oil 15
2.5.2 Plant source: lemon grass 15
2.5.3 Grass oils 17
2.5.4 Jasmine 17
2.5.5 Violet 17
2.5.6 Lavander 18
2.5.7 Otto of roses 18
2.5.8 Rosemary 18
2.5.9 Chemical constituents
of
essential oils. 18
2.6.0 Chemical
structure of essential
oil 19
2.6.1 Hydrocarbon 19
2.6.2 Terpenes 19
2.6.3 Alcohols 22
2.6.4 Aldehydes 22
2.6.5 Acids 22
2.6.6 Esters 22
2.6.7 Ketones and lactones 23
2.6.8 Conditions that affect the yield &
quality of essential oils 23
2.6.9 Treatment/purifications of essential oils 25
2.7.0 Storage of essential oils 25
2.8. Perfume Extraction Method 26
2.8.1 Extraction of fragrance 26
2.8.2 Distillation 27
2.9 Formulation of Perfumes 30
2.10 The importance of perfume 31
CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 33
3.1 Sample
Preparation 33
3.2 Extraction Methods 33
3.3.1. Soxhlet
extraction by hot method using n-hexane 33
3.3.2. Solvent
extraction by cold method using n-hexane. 34
3.3.3 Hydro-distillation method
35
3.4 Perfume Production. 35
3.5 pH Determination 36
3.6 Specific
Gravity Determination 37
CHAPTER 4:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38
4.1 Weight of Extract from the Three
Methods of Extractions. 38
4.2 Physio-chemical Properties of Essential Oil
Extract of
Capsicum annum (Red Pepper). 39
4.3 The
Physio-chemical Properties of Perfume Produced. 40
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 41
5.1 Conclusion 41
5.2 Recommendations 41
References
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Storage Materials 26
3.1 Basic Perfume Formulation 36
4.1 Weight of Extract from the Three Methods 38
4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Essential Oil
Extract of
Red
Pepper (Capsicum annum). 39
4.3 Percent Yields of Oils From the 3 Methods
of Extraction 40
4.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Perfume
Produced
from Extract 40
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1
Red Pepper, Capsicum anuum (Tatase) 3
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The word perfume is used today to describe scented
mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, "per fumus," meaning through smoke, is fragrant liquid that is sprayed
or rubbed on the skin or clothes to give a pleasant smell (Altman et al., 1986). Extraction of perfume
from various plants resources is of ancient origin. In fact the natives from
different tropical regions of the globe have long been extracting oil from
numerous oil bearing plants. Human beings since the ancient time have known how
to extract oil from their natural sources. Vegetable oils are naturally
occurring esters of higher fatty acids and glycerol. They are widely
distributed in nature and were first consumed as food. Later oils were
discovered to be used as renewable raw materials for variety of non-food
production, for instance perfumes, disinfectants, inks, air-freshener and
others.
Red Pepper (Capsicum annum).
Capsicum
annum red pepper and commonly called Tatase in Nigerian languages, is a red
colour fruit when it is fully ripe. It is
a specie of the plant genus Capsicum (peppers)
native to southern North
America and northern South America (ARS, 2010), (Lantham, 2009). This specie is the most common
and extensively cultivated of the five domesticated capsicums. The species
encompasses a wide variety of shapes and sizes of peppers, both mild and hot,
such as bell peppers, jalapeños, New
Mexico Chile, and cayenne
peppers. The cultivars descended from the wild American bird
pepper and are still found in warmer regions of the Americas (Francis
2003). In the past, some woody forms of these species have been
called Capsicum frutescens, but the
features that were used to distinguish those forms appear in many populations
of Capsicum annuum and are not consistently recognizable features
in Capsicum frutescens species (Zhi-Yun et al., 2013).
Moreover, cross pollination between Capsicum annuum and Capsicum
frutescens are not likely because seeds obtained from the pollination
between those two species (if the embryo survives) will not germinate (Carlos
E. et al., 2011). Topical capsaicin
has been introduced in the U.S. and Canada as a cream indicated for temporary
relief of neuralgia following episodes of herpes zoster infections and in the
treatment of diabetic neuropathy. Although capsaicin is clinically used as an
external analgesic for temporary relief of neuralgia, it has also been widely
used as a research tool to study peripheral pain (Rumsfield, 1991).
The characteristics of the red pepper (Capsicum annum), which can describe the nature and features of the
plant and the name of red pepper which is derived from two Latin words,
Capsicum which means pepper and annum means annual. Even though the specie’s
name annum means “annual” (from the Latin annus “year”),
the plant is not an annual but
is grown during winter and its frost tender (Pepper & Chillis 2017). In the
absence of winter frosts it can survive several seasons and grow into a large,
shrubby perennial herb
(Katzer, 2008). The single flowers are an off-white (sometimes purplish)
colour while the stem is densely branched and up to 60 cm (24 in)
tall. The fruits are like berries
in shape and may be green, yellow, orange or red when ripe (OECD,
2006). While the species can tolerate most frost-free climates, Capsicum
annum is especially productive in warm and dry climates. In other
words, it can strive well during dry season with dry-season farming system.
Red
Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most significant
vegetable plants in Western Balkans (Žarko et
al., 2009). The production of spice paprika in the region of Pannonian
plate has a long tradition. One of the very important products of pepper processing
is ground paprika, a spice which is widely used throughout the World (Aneta W. et al., 2011). The main quality
parameter for ground paprika products are the colour and pungency (Carvajal et al., 1998; Govindarijan, et al., 1986; Govindarijan et al., 1987), while aroma recently
started to attract the attention of scientists (Mateo et al., 1997; Eichner, 1973; Kocsis et al., 2002; 2003).
In the
process of food production red pepper is mainly used as a colourant. Unique red
colour of red pepper is due to presence of capsantin and capsorubin, two
carotenoids characteristic for the capsicum genus. Besides changing the colour
of the food, red pepper also affects the flavour.
Figure
1.1 Red Pepper, Capsicum anuum (Tatase).
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Egyptians were responsible for the origin of perfume.
They utilized scents in everything from religious ceremonies to burial
preparations and even daily wear. The rich elites of Egyptian society, male and
female alike would adorn themselves with aromas like lily to denote their
status. The Persians took over the use of perfume as a sign of political
status, but it wasn't until the Greeks and Romans became acquainted with it
that it began to be viewed as a form of art and produced in large quantity and
in consistent quality. Archaeologists recently uncovered a perfume factory from
2,000 BC, located in Cyprus, which seemed to have specialized in the production
of scents like coriander, laurel, myrtle, lavender, and rosemary. Perfume
slowly spread throughout the globe, and for a while, scents were reserved
mainly for use in religious ceremonies. However, in 1190, perfume began to be
produced commercially in Paris, and from there, it blossomed into a massive
industry once more (web site article, https). Ancient texts and
archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest
human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the
commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin that allowed for the composition of
perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics
alone (Levey, 1973).
Several thousands of plants
distributed throughout the world contain a group of odiferous, fragrance, oily
products that are highly volatile organic substances collectively known as
essential oils. The term essential used here does not mean indispensable as
with the term essential amino acids or essential fatty acids which are so
called since they are nutritionally required by a living organism (Reeds,
2000). Therefore, perfume may be from essential oils of vegetables or plant
origin. It is a complex mixture of aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons, alcoholic
acid and short chain esters. The existence of perfume on certain plants has
been known for thousands of years. They can be found in leaves, flowers, stems,
barks, and roots. Ancient Egyptians extracted essential oils from plants
tissues by steam distillation (Ogbu et al.,
2005). Other methods of isolating essential oils include solvent extraction,
expression, cold plate or enfleurage (extraction of oil by wax). Some of these
methods have been adopted by essential oil extracting industries.
Information on perfume indicates the
type of essential oils that have been extracted from plants and is of different
quality in terms of fragrance, for example jasmine perfume is from jasmine
plants, and lemon perfume is from lemon grass and so on.
A formulation or recipe for perfume that
is rightly blended with the essential oil and other additives is used to
differentiate one perfume from the other.
Alcohol is added to the fragrance or
essential oils as a primary solvent to reduce the strays of the oils and as the
vehicle through which the perfume can come out as spray or aerosols. Essential
oil can be used directly as perfume by robbing the oil on the skin, cloth or
any other materials. It is usually stored in a bottle different from spraying
bottle where it can be applied without being sprayed because of its viscosity.
Alcohol is therefore the perfect liquid through which essential oil can be
sprayed as perfume.
Fixatives are also used with the
other ingredients like water, essential oils and alcohol to lower the rate of
evaporation of the fragrance of essential oils. The fragrance of perfume will
last longer on the user when the right fixatives such as Polysorbate is used in
its formulation.
1.2 STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM
Recently,
there has been a high demand of essential oils for various purposes such as
medicinal, perfumery, soap making, insecticides and other products being
produced from essential oil which has opened up wide opportunities even for
small scale businesses.
The imported synthetic essential
oils are very expensive to import with high cost of importation to meet the
demand of our local consumption more especially the small and medium
enterprises. Therefore, it becomes necessary to source and extract these oils
from local sources. In particular, good perfumes that are usually imported
can be produced
locally from a
vast variety of oil
bearing plants yet to be explored. Solvent extraction is the safest method for
extracting high yield oil because some herbs and spices cannot be extracted by other
methods, but it has the disadvantage of having residual solvents in the
essential oils.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Major
consumers of essential oils are the perfumery, cosmetics, food and beverages
and pharmaceutical industries. Most
of these industries in Nigeria depend on imported essential oils for their
production and this makes their products very expensive. Interestingly, some of
these sources of essential oils are common in Nigeria such as lemon grass,
ginger, flowers, eucalyptus and in addition, red pepper (Capsicum annum).
There is a high potential in this
area and it becomes necessary to seek means to explore these sources with the
aim of providing our local industries with these essential oils.
1.4
AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
The
main objective of this research is to extract essential oil from red pepper (Capsicum annum) using three extracting
methods such as the solvent extraction by hot method, solvent extraction by
cold method and hydrodistillation method.
It is hoped that from this research
work, optimum extraction parameters like solvent type, percent extraction, and
the quality of perfume would be established. The result obtained would add to
the data bank that could help potential industrialist who intend to go into
perfume production from plants. Consequently, more processing industries would
lead to a higher production both for domestic consumption and export
1.5 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH
i.
The scope is to investigate the effect of solvent nature and
temperature on the extraction of essential oil in terms of yield
ii.
To formulate perfume using the extracted oil and other
appropriate materials.
iii. The formulation and production of
perfume.
iv. Determination of some of the
physical/chemical characteristics of both the extracted oil and the formulated
product such as pH, specific gravity, odour and colour.
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