ABSTRACT
In this study, the doughnut was produced from whole wheat flour (Triticum aestvium), three leaf yam (Dioscorea dumentorum) orange fresh sweet potatoes (1pomoea batatas). The tuber crops three leaf yam, orange flesh sweet potatoes were made into flours, seven composite flour in the proportion of 100:00:00, 80:10:10, 65:15:20, 50:20:30, 35:25.:40, 25:25:50, 15:30:55 were formulated. Standard chemical methods were used to analyze their proximate. This vitamin components and free fatty acid properties. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Ducan’s multiple range test, with level of significance set at p = 0.05. Two hundred grain portion of the formulated composite flour of doughnut were analyse to contain crude fibre from 1.18%. to 0.71%. And thus would be easily digestible, the protein content ranges from 8.37% to 10.74%. From OTW7 to OTW. These show that high inclusion of three leaf yam flour and orange flesh sweet potato flour decrease protein content of the doughnut. The flour were low in bulk density all throughout the commercial diet was lower. It’s carotenoid, thiamine and riboflavin levels falls short of the codex recommended level for complimentary food. Sensory characteristics shows that the doughnut were generally slightly liked. Use of the formulated proportion of the doughnut 80:10:10 should be encouraged as an alternative to regular poor nutrient traditional production of doughnut and the expensive commercial formula.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of contents vi
List of figures ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3 Justification of the project 3
1.4 Objectives of the Study 4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Roots And Tubers 5
2.2 Yam 5
2.3 Description of Three Leaved Yam 6
2.3.1 Nutritional and therapeutic benefits of three leaved yam 7
2.3.2 Anti-nutrient factors of three leaved yam 8
2.3. Application of three leaved yam in foods 9
2.4 Description of Orange‐Fleshed Sweet Potato 10
2.4.1 Nutritional value and therapeutic benefits of orange‐fleshed sweet potato 11
2.4.2 Ant nutrient factors of orange fleshed sweet potato 13
2.4.3 Application of orange fleshed sweet potato in foods 13
2.5 Description of Wheat Grain 16
2.5.1 Nutritional value and health benefits of wheat 16
2.5.2 Application of wheat in foods 17
2.6 Composite Flour 18
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Materials 19
3.4 Mathematical model of a Hydro power plant 21
3.4.1 Synchronous machine model 22
3.4.1.1 The d–q model of synchronous machine 22
3.4.1.2 Voltage equations of the synchronous machine 22
3.4.1.3 Torque equation 28
3.4.2 Hydro turbine model 27
3.4.3 Excitation system model 28
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DICUSSION 32
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 41
5.2 Recommendation 41
REFRENCES 61
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Flour blends formulation (%) 27
Table 2: Recipe for production of doughnut 28
Table 4.1 Functional Properties of the Flour Blend 40
Table 4.2: Proximate composition of the doughnut samples. 45
Table 4.3: Physical properties of doughnut samples 50
Table 4.4 Vitamin composition and free fatty acid of the doughnut samples. 53
Table 4.5 Sensory evaluation of the doughnut samples 56
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Flow chart for processing three leave yam flour 3
Figure 3.2: Flow chart for the production of orange fleshed sweet potato flour 25
Figure 3.3: Flow chart for doughnut production 29
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1:Shaded Orange Flesh Sweetpotato 21
Plate 2:Shadeded Dried three leaf yam 21
Plate 3: Three Leaf Yam Tuber 21
Plate 4: Orange Flesh Sweet Potato Tuber 21
Plate 5: Three Leaf Yam Flour 26
Plate 6: Orange Flesh Sweet Potato Flour 26
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Snacks are one of the currently thriving markets in sub-Saharan Africa. Doughnut is a popular snack that is usually deep-fried from a flour dough. It is either ring-shaped or without a hole, and often filled with jam (Kumar et al., 2018). Doughnut is prepared in various forms as a sweet snack that can be home-made or purchased in bakeries, supermarkets, and food stalls (Kumar et al., 2018).Doughnut is mostly consumed due to its ready-to-eat nature, good nutritional quality and low cost (Adeyeye and Akingbala,2015).Currently, consumption of doughnuts is on the increase in Nigeria as a result of urbanization (Adeyeye and Akingbala, 2015).
Wheat (Triticum aestvium) is a leading cereal crop which is mainly utilized for human consumption (Onipe et al., 2015). Its flour is mainly used in production of snacks like doughnut due to the unique properties of its protein (gluten) (Oluwafemi and Seidu, 2017). Presence of carbohydrate (73.38 %), fat (1.19 %) (Anon et al., 2018),sodium (5.31 mg/100g), potassium (212.64 mg/100g), iron (3.39 mg/100g), calcium (13.35 mg/100g), phosphorus (141.23 mg/100g), magnesium (111.00 mg/100g) and zinc (2.85 mg/100g) are reported in wheat (Meherunnahar et al., 2018).
Wheat grains possess numerous health benefits. Hadjivassiliou et al.(2013) reported that wheat grains processed with its bran and germ provides protection against diseases like constipation, heart disease, disease of the colon called diverticulum, appendicitis, obesity and diabetes (Hadjivassiliou et al., 2013).Wheat is used in production of pastries, spaghetti, macaroni and noodles with desirable texture and flavour (Akhtar et al., 2008).
Yam has the potentials to greatly contribute to poverty alleviation and food security (Azeteh et al., 2019). Three leaved yam (TLY) (Dioscorea dumentorum) is an underutilized specie of the yam family (Akinoso et al., 2016). Three leaved yam possess 69.15 g/kg-1 protein, 56.50 g/kg-1 crude fiber, 28.38 g/kg-1 crude fat, 151.8 g/kg-1 carbohydrate (Ukom et al., 2014), and appreciable levels of minerals like potassium and magnesium compared to other commonly consumed tubers (Nimenibo-Uadia and Oriakhi, 2017).It contain promising bioactive compounds like diosgenin that support their different biological properties, including antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and ant proliferative activities (Salehi et al., 2019). Three leaved yam can be processed into a wide array of products like flour and confectionaries.
Orange-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a staple food crop that has the potential to supply significant amounts of vita¬min A and energy (Hotz, 2012) thus, helping to address the twin-problem of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and under-nutrition (Hotz, 2012). Orange‐fleshed sweet potato is a good source of micronutrients, dietary fiber and antioxidants (Endrias et al., 2016; Rodrigues et al., 2016).It is used in the management of several diseases like diabetes, hypertension, dysentery, constipation, fatigue, arthritis, hydrocephaly, meningitis, kidney ailments and inflammations (Meira et al., 2012).Orange-fleshed sweet potato can be consumed after boiling or processed into various food products like flour and doughnuts.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Consumption of doughnuts is on the increase in Nigeria as a result of urbanization. Wheat, the basic ingredient in doughnut production is imported into Nigeria involving huge expenditure of foreign exchange. Besides, most nutritious indigenous crops like three leave yam that can be utilized in processing confectionaries like doughnut are underutilized (Akinoso et al., 2016). More so, doughnuts made from non-enriched wheat flour lacks essential nutrients that are lost during the process of wheat flour refinement (Chong and Noor-Aziah, 2008).
Three leaved yam that have the tendency to contribute in eradicating food insecurity in addition to enhancing nutritional status of most people in developing nations like Nigeria is hard-to-cook, thus deterring its consumption by consumers (Uzoukwu et al., 2015). Also, vitamin A deficiency is a major public health concern in most developing countries like Nigeria and is responsible for blindness, retarded growth and death among young children (Ukom et al., 2016).
1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Partial substitution of wheat flour for doughnut production with orange fleshed sweet potato and three leaved yam flour will aid in reduction of over dependence of wheat commonly used in production of doughnut, contribute in ensuring that consumers of doughnuts obtain essential nutrients basically lost during wheat refinement, reduce the huge amount Nigeria spends in importation of wheat and in turn contribute in eradicating vitamin A deficiency. More so, this this will enhance cultivation, utilization and economic value of three leaved yam. Findings of this study will be of importance to consumers of doughnut and even doughnut producing industries in making nutritious doughnut which will no longer be seen as empty calories or junks. Researchers and individuals vulnerable to vitamin A deficiency will also see this doughnut highly valuable. Dieticians in developing nations like Nigeria will also find the doughnut as a cost-effective tool of managing vitamin A deficiency.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this study was to assess the quality attributes of flour and doughnuts supplemented with blends of orange-fleshed sweet potato and three leaved yam.
The specific objectives were to:
i. produce flour from wheat, orange-fleshed sweet potato and
Three leave yam
ii. evaluate the functional properties of the flour blends
iii. produce doughnuts with the composite flour
iv. determine the physical properties, proximate composition, vitamin content and sensory properties of the doughnut
v. Evaluate the free fatty acid of the doughnut.
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