TABLE
OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
1.2 Statement
of the Problems
1.3 Purpose
of the Study
1.4 Significance
of the Study
1.5
Scope of the study
1.6 Operational Definition of Terms
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE
REVIEW
Conceptual Review of Literature
·
Meaning of Sexual Activities
·
Adolescent Sexual Activities
·
Determinant of sexual activities among
adolescent:
·
Consequences of sexual activities
·
Sexual abstinence
·
Benefit of sexual abstinence
·
Factors driving sexual activities among
adolescent
Theoretical Review of Literature
·
Theories of adolescent and risk behavior
Empirical Review of Literature
·
Gender and sexual behavior
·
Place of residence and sexual behavior
·
Age and sexual behavior
·
Religion and sexual behavior
·
Appraisal of the literature review
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2
Population of the Study
3.3
Sample and Sampling Technique
3.4
Instrumentation
3.5 Administration of the Instrument
3.6
Data Analysis
CHAPTER
FOUR
DATA
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Analysis of the demographic variables of
the respondents
4.2 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
4.3
DISCUSSION
OF FINDINGS
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. SUMMARY,
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1. SUMMARY
5.2.
CONCLUSION
5.3.
RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Sexual intercourse or coitus or copulation, is closely
the insertion and thrusting of male’s penis, usually when erect into a female’s
vagina for the purpose of sexual pleasure or reproduction; also known as
vaginal intercourse or vaginal sex (Cecie, Ada, Irving & Kar, 2010). Other
forms of penetrative sexual intercourse include penetration of the anus by the
penis (anal sex), penetration of the mouth by the penis or oral penetration of
the vulva or vagina (oral sex), sexual penetration by the fingers (fingering),
and penetration by use of a strap-on dildo (Rutter & Steinberg, 2004).
These activities involve physical intimacy between two or more individuals and
are usually used among humans solely for physical or emotional pleasure and
commonly contribute to human bonding (Richard & Fedwa, 2007). A variety of
views concern what constitutes sexual intercourse or other sexual activity
(Douglas & Nancy, 2008) which can also impact views on sexual health
(O’leary, 2002).
The term sex, often shorthand for
sexual intercourse, can mean any form of sexual activity (Randall & Byers,
2003). Because people can be at risk of contracting sexually transmitted
infections during these activities (Daouglas, Ann, Fedwa & Randall, 2007)
though the transmission risk is significantly reduced during non-penetrative
sex (Keath, Wayne & Nilamadhab, 2005), safe sex practice is advised
(Dianne, 2008) various jurisdictions have placed restrictive laws against
certain sexual acts, such as incest, sexual activity with minors, extra marital
sex, prostitution, sodomy, rape and zoophilia. Religious beliefs also play a
role in personal decision about sexual intercourse or other sexual activity
such as decisions about virginity (Daouglas, Ann, Fedwa & Randall, 2007) as
well as legal and public policy matters.
Religious views on sexuality vary
significantly between different religions and sects of the same religion,
though there are common themes, such as prohibition of adultery. Reproductive
sexual intercourse between non-human animal is more often termed copulation,
and sperm may be introduced into the female’s reproductive tract in non-vaginal
ways among the animals, such as by cloacal copulation. For most non-human
mammals, mating and copulation occur at the point of estrus (the most fertile
period of time in the female’s reproductive cycle), which increases the chances
of successful impregnation (Lloyd, Rutter & Ann, 2007; Jared, 2005).
However, bonobos, dolphins and chimpanzees are known to engage in sexual
intercourse regardless of whether or not the female is in estrus, and to engage
in sex act with some sex partners (Hales, Ann, & Weiner, 2010) like human
engaging in sexual activity primarily for pleasure (Carpenter, 2005), this
behaviour in the aforementioned animals is also presumed to be for pleasure
(Fawcett, 2008), and contributing factor to strengthening their social bonds
(Laura, 2005).
The
sexual rate activity rate among young teens is increasing. Among males who
turned 20 between 1970 and 1972, 20 percent had sexual intercourse by age 15,
compared to 27 percent of those who turned 20 between 1985 and 1987. Of females
who turned 20 between 1985 and 1987, 10 percent had initiated sexual
intercourse by age 15. Compared to 14 percent of those who turned 20 between
1970 and 1972 (Marisglio & Mott, 1998). African Americans are more likely
to initiate sexual intercourse at a young age. More than half of African
American males have already had sexual intercourse by age 15. White and
Hispanic males do not attain these levels of sexual activity until age 17. In
1992, approximately 25 percent African American females and approximately 15
percent Hispanic and white females have had sexual intercourse by age 15
(Marsiglio & Mott, 1998). Pregnancy rate among females age 14 and under rose
from 13.5 (per 1,000 females age 14) in 1973 to 17.1 in 1992. Approximately
nine percent of sexually experienced females age 14 and under become pregnant
each year (Moore, Miller & Glei, 1995). The abortion rate among all females
age 14 and under was 5.6 (per 1,000 female age 14) in 1973, 8.4 in 1980 and 7.9
in 1990. In 1994, there were 12,901 births to teens under the age of 15 (Nord,
Moore & Morrison, 1992). Moreso, adolescent females may be more susceptible
to STDs than older women. Teen girls have fewer antibiotics to STDs and may
have a higher risk of cervical infections (Moore, Miller & Glei, 1995). The
maternal death rate for teen under age 15 is two and a half times greater than
that of mothers aged 20 to 24 (Moore, Myers & Morrison, 1993). Babies born
to teens younger’s than 15 are more than twice as likely to weigh less than
2,500 grams (about 5.5 pounds) at birth and are three times more likely to die
in the first 28 days of life than babies born to older mothers (Langan &
Harlow, 1994). The risk between early child bearing and poor health outcomes is
due to the numerous risk factors associated with being young, such as
inadequate prenatal care and nutrition (Boyer & Fine, 1992). The younger a
woman is, the less likely she is to receive prenatal care during the first
trimester of her pregnancy (Moore, Miller, & Glei, 1995). Of African
American teen mothers who were less than 16 years old when they gave birth, 72
percent were still living in poverty at age 27. Among Hispanic women and White women,
67 percent and 32 percent, respectively, are living in poverty (Boyer &
Fine, 1992).
Sexual abstinence has been seen as
the only way of avoiding different sexually transmitted diseases and, it has
put in much efforts at it’s campaign to school students, civil servants,
private sectors workers and independent workers; as to the advantages of
staying away from having sexual intercourse before marriage. This camping
become enstrengthened due to the discovery of the ubiquitous killer disease
known as Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) which has an onset of Human
Immune Virus (HIV) and, this has caused sexual activities to reduce to the
bearest minimum. Though some are still perpetrating commercial sexual
activities but, not as it used to be on the increase sometimes back. The first
cases of AIDS were identified in Uganda in the early 1990s (Kagimu, 1996).
Since then the epidemic has progressed, with an estimated 15 – 20 million
Ugandans out of a total population of 18 million HIV-positive (STD/ACP
Programme, 1995). There has been several researches carried out on sexual
abstinence all over the world, and, but of variables had been used to measure
sexual abstinence. Some of which are in-laws, literacy level, peer influence
and many more but, all these are still demanding that other variables be used
to test sexual absence.
An examination of the
characteristics of adolescent sexual behaviour shows that there are differences
by gender and socio-economic status, with males found to be sexually involved
at younger ages than females. Some studies examined the role of schooling on
adolescent sexual behaviour, and argued that in-school teenagers are more
likely to exert autonomy in deciding to engage in sexual relationships. The
role of the family as a socialization agent has also been examined. Meeker
found that in general, the social control exercised by community elders over
the fertility and sexuality of young female has become weak due to
modernization and westernization. The Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey of
2007 reported that the median age at first sexual intercourse for girls is just
over 16 years. By age 18 and 20, 63% and approximately 80% respectively have
experienced sexual intercourse. The second phase of the survey published in
1999 reported that half of the female respondents had sexual intercourse by age
18; about one-quarter had sex before age 15. Interesting aspect of the report
is that, men are exposed to sexual intercourse later than women. The median age
at first sexual intercourse among men is 20, compared to 18 for women. While
the HIV/AIDS pandemic has been inflicting a devastating impact on various sectors
of life, one of the major obstacles to its prevention is social stigma. Stigma
is defined as an attribute that is deeply discrediting which links a person to
undesirable characteristics, thus reducing that individual’s status in the eyes
of society (Clifford, 2004). It has been indicated that stigmatized individuals
are believed to possess some features that convey a social identity that is
devalued in a particular social context. In stigma, one group sees the other as
abnormal and should be abhorred. It’s components includes people distinguishing
and labeling human differences; dominant groups linking labeled persons to
undesirable characteristics; labeled persons are placed in distinct categories
so as to accomplish some degree of separation of ‘us’ from ‘them’ and labeled
persons experience status loss and discrimination that leads to unequal
outcomes (Dorothy, 2003). It manifests in avoidance, social distancing,
coercion and non-supportiveness’s elf-stigma leads to reduced or diminished
self-esteem. Stigmatization can lead to prejudicial thoughts, behaviours and
actions on the part of individuals and groups (Adelini, 2004).
The ancient world discouraged
promiscuity for both healthy and social reasons (Joseph, 2003). According to
Pythagoras (6th century BCE), sex should be practiced in the winter,
but not the summer, but was harmful to male health in every season because the
loss of semen was dangerous, hard to control and both physically and
spiritually exhausting, but had no effect on females (Robert, 2005). This idea
may have been merged with Zoroastrian idea of good and evil in a philosophy
known as Gnosticism, which influenced Christian and Islamic attitudes to sexual
activity (Emery, 2005). Throughout history, and especially prior to the 20th
century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers
numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a
reduction of vitality. In modern times, the argument has been phrased in
biological terms, claiming that loss of semen through ejaculation result in a
depletion of vital nutrients such as lecithin and phosphorous, which are also
found at the higher levels in the brain.
Some advantages in favour of sexual
abstinence were also claimed by Walter Siegmeister, better known as Raymond and
Bernard, an early 20th century American alternative health, esoteric
writer, author and mystic, who formed part of the alternative reality
subculture. In his essay entitled science discovers the physiological value of
continence (1957) he states: “It is clear that there is an important internal
physiological relation between the secretion of the sex glands and the central
nervous system, that the loss of these secretions, voluntarily or
involuntarily, exercises a detrimental effect on the nutrition and vitality of
the nerves and brain, while, on the other hand, the conservation of these
secretions has a vitalizing effect on the nervous system, a regenerating effect
on the endocrine glands, and a rejuvenating effect on the organism as a whole.”
Considering the above statement based on what is experienced amid youths in the
Nigeria setting, there are believes that when one refrain from sex such a
person would have scrotal pains so, this believe has caused many youths to run
into sex while others believe that, by having sex, ones life longevity reduces
by twenty one days depending on the number of time he/she have sex, so, this
also is refraining youths from having sexual intercourse while some youths are
not even afraid to face any negative consequences for having se. the widely
dreaded HIV/AIDS is another thing of fear among youth in that it’s victims have
been seen and, it’s news is allover the places and, still some youth could not
abstain from having sex so, they use contraceptives/protectives such as condom.
This endemic has to stop or get reduced in rate therefore, parents, government,
non-governmental bodies, association, etc has a lot to do as regard the issue
of sexual abstinence among youths.
Sexual abstinence has been practiced
at all edges by different cultural backgrounds even, biblical proof stated 1st
Thessalonians 4:2-4 that, “for this is the will of God, your sanctification:
that you abstain from sexual immorality; that each one of you know how to
control his own body in holiness and honour. In the African setting, it is
common of parents to monitor their children such as knowing where and when they
will leave a particular place and, most importantly, the types of friends that
they keep because, it is a taboo in African cultural setting for a young man to
get married to a disvirgin lady even, it is a disgrace to the entire family of
such a lady. This African culture is
also depicted in the book of Hebrew 13:4, “let marriage be held in honour among
all, and let the marriage bed be undefiled, for God will judge the sexually
immoral and adulterous. The medicine of
the Prophet by Al-Suyuti (pp. 18-20) states “go and take virgin as your wife
whom you will caress and who will caress you,” while an Hadith of the Prophet
(S.A.W) states “whoever among you is troubled by his sexual urge, let him marry
for marriage causes the eyes to be lowered and safeguards the private parts.”
This facts undoubtedly shows that the African culture against sexual
intercourse before marriage isn’t bias but, for the safety of the adolescents
in that, a lot of it had led to contracting of deadly sexually transmitted
diseases.
Parents, as adolescents themselves
reveal, are the ones who have the most influence on their children’s decisions
about sex. Indeed, two-thirds of all adolescents share their parent’s value on
this. nearly all parents (90 percent) report having had a helpful conversation
about delaying sex and avoiding pregnancy with their adolescent children,
compared to 71 percent of adolescents who report having had such a conversation
with their parents (Edgars, 2000). Meanwhile, several negative outcomes has
been attached to adolescent sexual intercourse especially those who lack
parental monitoring and these outcomes are: lack of wages and career
opportunities, increased welfare dependency, interrupted education, single
parenthood, psychological distress, increased medical complications during
childbirth and high likelihood of further unintended pregnancies (Chilman,
1988; Voydanoff & Donelly, 1993; McLaughlin & Micklin, 1983; Zabin
& Hayward, 1993). Drop in abstinence, religion may also play a vital role
at bringing adolescents to consciousness on the related risks associated with
having sexual intercourse before marriage.
Religion plays a significant role in
the life of individuals in any society. It’s role as a moral builder has been variously
acknowledged but, one factor that has not been given adequate attention in
Nigeria, especially among adolescents, is the role of religion in adolescents
sexuality. Although several studies have shown a correlation between adolescent
sexual behaviour and religious commitment (Cullen, 2003), no serious attempt to
confirm the underlying mechanism through which religion affects sexual
behaviour exists in Nigeria because, religious values are the source of moral
proscriptions for many individuals, the teachings of the churches and mosques
are likely to play a role in the formation of individual attitudes, values and
decisions. The extent to which religion influence individual attitudes and
behaviour, however, depends on the specific doctrines and religious
institutions on the degree of integration and commitment of individuals to
their particular religious institutions (Iyod, 1999; Beckly, 2000; & Larma,
2001).
The Christian religious group have
strong opposition against premarital sex, although such opposition is more
radical among the Pentecostal and evangelical religious movements. While the
later can sanction their members by excommunication, the former can tolerate
the offending members with the hope that they will turn a new life (Odimegwu,
2005). This differential institutional commitment to premarital sexual
abstinence leads to the expectation that in individual Catholics and
evangelical Protestants would be less accepting of premarital sex than
non-fundamentalist Protestants. Those who with no religious affiliation would
be most likely to accept and engage in premarital intercourse (Beckly, 2000).
Since most religious groups discourage premarital sex, the degree of commitment
to religious organizations may be more important as a determinant of premarital
sex and abstinence attitudes and behaviour than religious affiliation.
Individuals who attend religious
services may receive more frequency religious messages on abstinence and, their
greater religious commitment may also make them more likely to accept the
teaching of their religious institutions concerning abstinence and against
premarital sex. Thus, individuals who attend religious services frequently and
who value religion in their lives are probably more likely than others to
develop sexual attitudes and behaviour that are consistent with their religious
doctrines. As a result young people who are active in religious groups would
either have a greater commitment towards sexual abstinence before marriage or
would place greater emphasis on maturity in sexual relationships than would
young adolescents less active in religion institutions (Peter, 2001 &
Odimegwu, 2004).
Charity is always believed to begin
at home. So, as a parental, monitoring of the children is very essential and,
the teaching of moral lessons so that, even if peer would influence such a
child it will be of bearest minimal and such child might have developed a
filter to choose from shaft and powder. Many policy makers, health
professionals, and “safe sex” advocates respond to parental influence and
adolescents sex by demanding more comprehensive sex education and broader
access to contraceptives for minors. They assume that adolescents are unable to
delay their sexual behaviour and that a combination of information about and
access to contraceptives will effectively lead to protected sex, preventing any
form of harm to adolescents. Not only are these assumptions faulty, they tend
to disregard important factors that have been linked to reduce adolescent’s
sexual activity. A particularly noticeable omission is parental influence.
Therefore, this study chooses to test sexual abstinence in adolescents using
the duo of parental monitoring and religious influence as correlates of sexual
abstinence among in-school adolescents.
1.2 Statement
of the Problem
Sexual activities has found it’s bearing among Nigeria
in-school adolescents and this has even polluted the academic environment by
reduction in the number of female adolescents who achieves in terms of
education; due to unintended pregnancies, contraction of deadly diseases such
as HIV/AIDS and others sexually transmitted diseases which will not allow them
to complete their education with their colleagues; eventually makes them become
a dropout.
The issue of sexual abstinence which
cannot be adopted by adolescent brought a lot of adverse effect in the area of
teenage pregnancy, contraction of HIV/AIDS, abortion, leading to the
destruction of the womb, maternal death, due to unripe age of child delivery,
rapid school drop-out due to unplanned pregnancies, etc. All these have brought
about low self-esteem in the adolescent and a decline in the manpower of a
nation. Consequently, it brings about a huge disgrace to the family from where
they originate.
Moreso, peer influence most times
play a changing of orientation from acceptable to unacceptable; role in
adolescents in that, some parents have time to take care of their wards but,
these wards goes out there to come-in with an entire different attitude. Most
times these attitudes that are acquired are kept in the covert at home but,
overt at the midst of friends. So, the role or impact of peers can also not be
underestimated when considering factors that causes sexual activities among
in-school adolescents.
Campaign on sexual abstinence has
been echoed by various religious organizations while some adolescents are
adapting and most of them are remaining adamant in that, they have tasted sex
and are not willing to change therefore, government should equip schools with
counsellors and bring back the life planning foundation programmes that was
eradicated so as to compliment the effective work of counsellors at reducing
sexual activities and promoting sexual abstinence among in-school adolescent; because
it was observed that, the absence of these two factors also contributed to
increase in the sexual activities of Nigeria in-school adolescents.
Sexuality in the period of
adolescent is poorly handled in that, in Nigeria, most parents sees sex education
as country to the teachings of the Koran and Bible therefore, they failed to
enlighten the adolescents. These adolescents when mixed with their peers learn
alot of things about sex and, they pick it up in the wrong way; a situation
which gas accounted for different unintended pregnancies, different lives had
been lost through abortion while several innocent by ignorant souls had been
lost through HIV/AIDS.
1.3 Purpose
of the Study
The
general purpose of this study is to assess the influence of parental monitoring
and religious activities on sexual abstinence in some selected secondary
schools in Ilorin West LGA of Kwara State.
The study is guided by the following research
questions.
(1) To what extent will parental monitoring jointly
predict sexual abstinence among in-school adolescents in Ilorin West LGA of
Kwara State.
(2) Is there any relationship between the independent
variables (parental monitoring and religious influence) and the dependent
variable (sexual abstinence) among in-school adolescents in Ilorin West LGA of
Kwara State.
(3)
What is the
relative contribution of parental monitoring and religious influence on sexual
abstinence among in-school adolescents in Ilorin West LGA of Kwara State.
1.4 Significance
of the Study
This study will benefit students especially, the
female because, some of the adverse effects of school activities are treated in
this research while the benefits that awaits those who could refrain from
sexual activities are also discussed i.e. those who engages in it jeopardizes
their future career opportunities by dropping out of school due to unintended
pregnancy and abortion to include the loose of lives while those who refrain
will set the sky as their limit in academic and career pursuit. Ultimately, the
killer endemic disease HIV/AIS and other STDs awaits those who practices
sexual; activities while those who refrain enjoys their God given life.
Parents stand vagary of chances to
benefit from this study in that, those parents who are myopic of the fact that
HIV/AIDS and other SIDs exist and those who are aware would be able to use
knowledge gained from this study to protect their wards through words of advise
and motivation especially, enlightening them on the dangers in sex before
marriage and the shame it can cause the family. It will enable parents to
enlighten wards on the existing cultural, Biblical and Koranic beliefs as
regards sex before marriage as to as reduce sexual activities among
adolescents.
Schools will benefit from this study
by organizing sexual abstinence programmes for students as did by Federal
Government of Nigeria in 1997; a programmer which several numbers of student
benefitted from. Important information
on sexual abstinence could help pupils manage their health. Evaluation of
comprehensive sex education programme shows that these programmes could help
youth delay onset of sexual activity, reduce the frequency of sexual activity,
reduce number of sexual partners, and increase condom and contraceptive use.
Importantly, the evidence shows youth who receive comprehensive sex education
are not more likely to become sexually active, increase sexual activity, or
experience negative sexual health outcomes.
Counsellors should intensify their
efforts believing that teens who received a behavioural intervention centered
on abstinence were more likely to delay first sexual intercourse than teens who
received a control intervention. Studies have shown that behavioural
interventions can reduce behaviours related to HIV/AIDS and STI risks. Intervention
programmes would be based on strengthening beliefs, supporting abstinence,
preventing pregnancy and STIs, foster attainment of future goals and increase
skills for resisting pressure to have sex.
Religious leaders should identify
efforts to talk out adolescents on sexual activities making them understand
that the religious which such adolescent practices doe not favour it. This
could be effective during modrast lessons (for Islam) and Sunday Schools and
Bible Studies (for Christians) where topics relating to sexual activities could
be discussed and, adolescents will be made to see the negative outcomes of
sexual activities as a way of abreacting their minds from sexual
activities.
Community comprise of parents of
adolescents therefore the community should take into cognizance the betterment
of their wards by implementing some rules and regulations that will strictly
kick against sexual activities and indecent dressing in the environ. Community
can bring up ethics that will refrain adolescents from sexual activities and,
this could be discussed at the community meeting where different ethical codes
can be put in place.
Policy makers have continued to
support these campaign on sexual abstinence and, there is clear evidence
including compelling recent evidence from a long-awaited, congressionally
mandated report on federally funded abstinence-only-until-marriage programmes
that are effective in stopping and delaying adolescents sex. Infact, policy
makers through Federal Government has been supporting and evaluating
single-purpose abstinence promotion programmes since 1992 and there is evidence
that the programmes are effective i.e. Life Planning Education Programmes
(LFEP).
1.5 Scope
of the Study
This study is limited to the study of parental
monitoring and religious activities on sexual abstinence. Only some selected
secondary schools in Ilorin West LGA of Kwara State will be used.
1.6 Operational
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following concepts
are operationalized.
Parental Monitoring: This refers to the manner the parent supervise their
children’s movement, academics, social and religious activities.
Religion:
This refers to the general belief in a Supreme Being i.e. Islam in Allah,
Christianity in God (Jesus), traditional in Deities.
Adolescent: This
is an individual who is within the ages of 10 – 19 years especially, those who
are still schooling.
Sexual Abstinence:
This refers to the act of refraining oneself from sexual activities until when
one is matured physically and emotionally according to societal standard.
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