ABSTRACT
This project work studied the microorganisms that are associated with second hand clothes (Okirika) sold in Umudike. Three types of second hand clothes, including t-shirts, babies’ wears and under garments (undies), were randomly selected in each of three markets in and around Umudike (Gate 6, Umuariga and Umudike) and analyzed accordingly. Sterile swab sticks wetted with sterile saline solution were used to collect surface swab samples from each selected cloth, teased out in 10ml sterile saline solution and cultured by spread plate method on nutrient agar and Sabouraud Dextrose agar for bacteria and fungi respectively for counts and isolations. Results obtained show variations in which bacteria load was in the range of 8.33x105cfu/swab to 1.45x106cfu/swab and the fungi load ranged between 2.33x103cfu/swab to 5.00x103cfu/swab with mean values of 1.45x106cfu/swab and 3.67x103cfu/swab for bacteria and fungi respectively. The microflora of isolates from the clothes show the presence of different bacteria species with varying prevalence in the different clothe types including species of Bacillus (37.02%), Staphylococcus (92.6%), E. coli (29.62%), Pseudomonas (25.90%), Proteus (11.1%), Klebsiella (22.2%), and Enterobacter (18.5%). The gross occurrence of the fungi isolates was 62.90% (Aspergillus), 74.0% (Yeasts), 44.4% (Penicillium), 33.3% (Rhizopus). It was also observed that there were more microorganisms in the T-shirts than there was obtained in the baby’s wears and undergarments. Also, the occurrences of the microorganisms varied with clothe type and market locations. The presence of potential pathogens was noted as well as possibility of the clothes to transmit infections to people.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables ix
List of figures x
Abstract xi
CHAPTER ONE
•
Introduction 1
1.1 Background
of study 1
1.2 Aim
and objectives 2
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature
review 3
2.1 Overview
of second hand clothes in Africa 3
2.2 The
microbial diversity of fairly used wears sold in a Lagos Market, Nigeria 4
2.3 A microbial
survey of second hand clothe samples collected from Baghdad
market 5
2.4 Bacterial
contaminants associated with fairly used clothes 6
2.3.1 Staphylococcus aureus 6
2.4.2 Bacillus species 7
2.4.3 Staphylococcus epidermidis 8
2.4.4 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 9
2.5 Diversity
of fungi isolated from clothes 10
•
Fungal contaminants associated with second hand clothes 11
2.5.1.1 Yeasts 11
2.5.1.2 Rhizopus 12
2.5.1.3 Aspergillus 13
2.6 Infection
control measures 14
2.6.1 Cleaning 14
2.6.2 Disinfection 15
CHAPTER
THREE
3.0 Materials
and methods 16
3.1 Materials 16
3.1.1 Source of materials 16
3.1 Study
area 16
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Collection of samples 17
3.2.2 Sterilization of materials 17
3.2.3 Preparation of culture media 17
3.2.1 Isolation of
bacteria found on the clothes 17
3.2.2 Isolation of bacteria from the samples 18
3.2.3 Identification of the isolates from the clothes 18
3.2.3.1 Gram staining 18
3.2.3.2 Endospore staining 19
3.3.3 Biochemical tests 20
3.3.3.1 Catalase test 20
3.3.2.2 Indole test 20
3.3.2.3 Citrate utilization test 20
3.3.2.4 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) production test 20
3.3.2.5 Starch hydrolysis 21
3.3.2.6 Motility, indole, urease (miu) 21
3.3.2.7 Coagulase test 22
3.3.2.8 Oxidase test 22
3.4 Percentage
occurrence of isolates 22
3.5 Antibiotic
susceptibility testing 22
CHAPTER 4
4.0 Results 24
CHAPTER 5:
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Discussion 32
5.2 Conclusion 33
5.3 Recommendation 33
References
34
Appendix 38
LIST OF
TABLES
Tables
4.1 Showing
the occurrence of the fungi isolates (%) 27
4.2 Showing
the occurrence of bacteria isolates (%) 28
4.3 Antimicrobial
sensitivity pattern of the most prevalent bacteria isolates 31
LIST OF
FIGURES
Figures
3.1 A
bar chart showing the gross occurrence of the bacteria 29
3.2 A
histogram showing the gross occurrence of fungi isolates 30
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Fairly used clothes in Nigeria are
known as “Okrika” and are clothing materials like shirts, trousers, towels,
socks, panties, pillow cases, curtains and bed sheets imported from United
States of America, United Kingdom, Asia, Germany and Netherlands after been
used for a while by the initial buyer (Agbulu et al., 2015). They are packed in bundles known as bales during
importation. Nigerians desire for foreign goods (including wears) increases
daily. Though the wears are cheaper, usually the driving force is the quality
of the products which are adjudged better than the new ones. These are
purchased without giving consideration to any attending health implications.
Clothes have the potential, just as any other hand contact site, to be a component
in the chain of infection transmission during normal daily activities (Malnick et al., 2008).
All forms of skin infections can be
caused by wearing contaminated second hand cloths. Bloomfield et al. (2011) showed that clothes have
the capacity to retain bacteria, fungi and viruses for varied lengths of time.
The need for regular monitoring of fairly used cloths is supported by data
generated from previous studies. Staphylococcus
aureus and Enterococci have been isolated from materials commonly worn by
patients and health care workers (Neely and Maley, 2000) Similarly, Pilonetto et al., (2004) and Neely and Orloff
(2001) detected Staphylococcus aureus,
Klebsiella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumani, Candida sp, Aspergillus sp,
Mucor sp. and Fusarium sp from fabrics which were associated with nosocomial
infections. Agbulu et al. (2015) also
demonstrated the presence of some bacteria and fungi of medical importance from
fairly used clothes. Disinfection has been shown to reduce the number of
pathogenic microbes in fairly used clothes. Some conscientious buyers often
wash these wears with detergents and water while others wear them directly as
new cloths. The potential for spread of pathogens to clothing from infected
sources (people, foods, domestic animals) is relatively high as reviewed by
Bloomfield et al. (2011). It is
estimated that around 106 skin squames containing viable organisms are shed
daily from normal skin (Wilkoff et al., 2006). “Okrika‟ as is fondly called, is
highly patronized by Nigerians and yet, there are very little information on
the attending health implications and what to do so as to reduce it.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This study therefore examined the
level of microbial contamination in some fairly used clothes sold in markets
around Umudike metropolis markets
The objectives are;
•
To isolate, characterize and identify the microorganisms
that are present on fairly used clothes samples sold in Umudike
•
To determine the percentage occurrence of the isolates from
the cloth samples
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