ABSTRACT
This study investigated the influence of cognitive styles on student academic achievement and interest in chemistry in Abia State. The design of the study was expost facto research design. Six research questions were answered and six null hypothesis tested at 0.05 level of significance in the study. The related literature for the study was reviewed under three subheadings; conceptual framework, theoretical framework and related empirical studies. The conceptual framework reviewed were; concept of chemistry as a secondary school subject, concept of cognitive styles, academic achievement of chemistry students and interest in teaching and learning process. The theoretical framework reviewed for the study were; Anderson’s Cognitive Development Theory and Personality Trait Theory. The related empirical studies reviewed were study on cognitive styles and achievement in sciences, study on gender and achievement in sciences, study on gender and interest in sciences and study on interactive effect of gender, cognitive styles and academic achievements of science students. The population of the study was 7,833 public senior secondary two (SSII) students in Abia State. The sample was 303 (123 boys and 180 girls) students from six intact classes of six public coeducational secondary schools in Ohafia education zone in Abia State. Three instruments were used for collection of data; grouped embedded figure test were used to group the student into different cognitive styles; dependent and independent cognitive styles; chemistry achievement tests and Chemistry Interest Scale. The instruments were validated by three experts one in measurement and evaluation, two in chemistry education of MOUAU. The reliability coefficients of the instruments were 0.72 and 0.89 respectively. Research questions were answered using mean and standard deviations while the hypotheses were tested using t-test and analyzing of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 level of significant. Findings revealed that, there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of field dependent and field independent cognitive style students in chemistry; there is no significant difference in the mean interest response of field dependent and field independent cognitive styles in chemistry among other things. It was concluded that the knowledge of cognitive styles of students in classroom during teaching and learning of chemistry will help in increasing student’s achievement and interest. Based on this, it was recommended among other things that chemistry curriculum should be planned in such a way that the cognitive styles of students will be monitored by the teacher. The education authorities should encourage chemistry teachers and teacher education instruction to make cognitive style part of the curriculum content. This will help in effective teaching and learning which helps students to achieve high and develop more interest in chemistry.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table
of content vi
List
of tables vii
Abstract
viii
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 9
1.3 Purpose of the study 10
1.4 Research questions 11
1.5
Hypotheses 11
1.6 Significance
of the study 12
1.7 Scope
of the study 14
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Conceptual Framework 15
2.1.1 Chemistry as a secondary school subject 15
2.1.2 An
overview of the concept of cognitive styles 18
2.1.3 Academic
achievement of chemistry students 24
2.1.4 Interest
in teaching and learning process 26
2.1.5 Gender
as a predictor of achievement and interest of students 29
2.2 Theoretical
Framework 31
2.2.1 Anderson’s cognitive development theory
(Anderson & wright, 1971) 31
2.2.2 Personality
trait theory (Gordon Allport, 1936) 32
2.3 Related Empirical Studies 33
2.3.1 Studies on cognitive styles and achievement
in sciences 33
2.3.2 Studies on cognitive styles and interest in
sciences 39
2.3.3 Studies on gender and achievement in
sciences 39
2.3.4 Study
on gender and interest in sciences 44
2.3.5 Studies on interactive effect of gender,
cognitive styles and academic 45
achievement
of science students
2.3.6 Studies on interactive effect of gender,
cognitive styles and interest of science
Students 46
2.4 Summary of Reviewed Literature 46
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Design of the study 48
3.2 Area of the study 48
3.3 Population of the study 49
3.4 Sample and sampling techniques 49
3.5 Instruments
for data collection 49
3.6
Validation of instrument 51
3.7
Reliability of the instrument 51
3.8 Method of data collection 52
3.9 Method of data analysis 53
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results 54
4.2 Summary of findings 65
4.3 Discussion of findings 65
CHAPTER
5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary 70
5.2 Conclusion 71
5.3 Recommendations 72
5.4 Educational implication of the finding 72
5.5 Limitation of the study 73
5.6 Suggestions for further studies 73
References 74
Appendices 82
LIST
OF TABLES
Table
1:
The mean achievement scores of students with field dependent
and those with field independent cognitive
styles and their standard
deviations in organic chemistry. 54
Table 2: t –
test analysis of the mean achievement scores of field dependent
and field independent cognitive styles
students in organic chemistry. 55
Table 3:
Mean interest scores and standard deviation of students with field
dependent and those with field independent
cognitive styles in
organic chemistry. 56
Table 4: t –
test Analysis on the mean interest scores of students with field
dependent and those with field independent
cognitive styles in
organic chemistry. 57
Table 5: The
mean achievement scores of male and female students in
organic chemistry based on their cognitive
styles. 58
Table 6:
analysis of variance (ANOVA) for testing hypothesis 3. 59
Table 7: The
mean interest responses of male and female students in organic
chemistry based on their cognitive styles. 60
Table 8:
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for testing hypothesis 4. 61
Table 9:
Joint influence of gender and cognitive styles on academic achievement
of students in organic chemistry. 61
Table 10:
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for testing hypothesis 5. 62
Table 11:
The joint influence of gender and cognitive styles on students’ interest
in organic chemistry. 63
Table 12:
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for hypothesis 6 64
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Chemistry occupies a central position in the
field of Science. It provides basic concepts for understanding complex chemical
reactions utilized in industries for production of numerous products for the
benefit of man and technological development mostly in developing countries
like Nigeria. Other sciences, medicine, engineering, and related courses depend
on the knowledge of Chemistry for effective functioning of their profession
(Etiubon, 2016).
Ajayi (2017) conceptualised Chemistry as a
science that systematically studies the composition, properties, and activities
of organic and inorganic substances and various elementary forms of matter. Friedl (2018) defined
Chemistry as the Science of structure, order and relation that has evolved from
elementary practices of counting, measuring and describing the shapes of
objects. Meyer (2018) stated that Chemistry is a way to study the properties,
characteristics, and physical and chemical changes of matter. It is an experimental science that needs an
integration of theory with practical for proper understanding, development and
application of concepts (Ugwu, 2019). From Ajayi, Friedl, Meyer and Ugwu’s
submissions, the researcher deduced that Chemistry is the science that is
concerned with the composition and structure of matter, and with the forces
that hold the structures together.
The three main branches of chemistry are: physical, inorganic and
organic. Physical Chemistry is the study of macroscopic and particulate
phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and
concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics,
quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and chemical equilibrium (Britannica, 2019). Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behaviour
of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds
that are not carbon-based. Organic chemistry is the study of structure,
properties, compositions, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing
compounds. This includes not only hydrocarbons but also compounds with any
number of elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, among others (Britannica, 2019).
Chemistry is made up of concepts that require
complex mental processes that involve visualizing, manipulating, analyzing,
abstracting and associating ideas. Chemistry pedagogy allows for the
development of a lot of general skills. Such skills include: problem solving,
thinking in models, hazards sensitivity, among others. This is in line with the
objectives of secondary school Chemistry education which stated among others
that Chemistry enables students to apply skills to meet societal needs of
creating employment and wealth (Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) 2013).
Chemistry, if properly taught, develops students’ conceptual understanding and
analytical abilities, and these could be applied to solve practical problems,
such as global economic crisis and pandemic diseases while enhancing students’ interest.
Interest is the focusing of the sense
organs on or giving attention to some persons, activities, situations or
objects (Renninger as cited in Nwanne, 2018). Memeh (2018) opined that it is
the state of curiosity. From Nwanne and Memeh, the researcher deduced that
interest is the intrinsic motivation that propels the senses to be relaxed and
allows students to actively participate in classroom activities with minimal
distraction.
Krapp, Hidi and Renninger (2002)
argued that interest emerges from an individual's interaction with his or her
environment. According to the authors, three factors contribute to the
development of interest: knowledge, positive emotion, and personal value. An
increase in knowledge can bring about positive effect as individuals feel more
competent and skilled through task engagement. This increase in knowledge leads
to enhanced academic achievement of students. Nwanne (2018) posited that
academic achievement of students is the ability of the student to study and
remember facts and being able to communicate his knowledge orally or in written
form even in an examination condition. Similarly, Memeh (2018) averred that
academic achievement is the progress students make towards achieving set goals
and objectives. Ubani (2020) posited that it is the ability of the students to
recall what they had previously learnt evidenced in formative and summative
tests. In line with this study, it is the ability of Chemistry students to
recall and communicate knowledge gained during pedagogical process.
Chief examiner’s report in the last decade
has shown that students have continuously under-performed in the Chemistry
May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination. (WASSCE). This
leads to poor performance in the achievement of student.
The analysis of students’ achievement in
Chemistry in the May/June West African Senior School Certificate Examination. (WASSCE).
Revealed 38.50%, 35.66%, 51.73%, 56.17%, 47.39%, 46.87, 44.93 and 50.52 in
2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 respectively (Appendix A);
thus, Chemistry pass rate remains as low as 46.47% in the last decade
(Chemistry WAEC Chief Examiner, 2011-2018). This fluctuating performance has
been of great concern to Chemistry educators over the years. Students see
Chemistry as a difficult subject because they do not know their thought processes
which help in tackling problem in Chemistry. It has been reported that students
avoid science courses for the fear of Chemistry. The implication of this
failure in education is that Nigeria will have shortages of manpower in science
and technology-related disciplines such as medicine, pharmacy, nursing,
biochemistry, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and many other areas.
Consequently, Nigeria’s vision to become one of the 20 industrialized nations
in the world by year 2023 has been crippled.
Chemistry WAEC Chief Examiner’s report
(2016) attributed the poor achievement of students to their unfamiliarity with
the use of simple laboratory equipment; inadequate exposure to laboratory
techniques; lack of observational skills; omission of units in calculated
values. They also identified inability to write chemical equation correctly,
assign correct charges to ions as well as inability to carry out simple
calculations, among others. In the same vein, Ajayi (2017) maintained that
students under perform in topics that require balancing chemical equation such
as stoichiometry as they find it difficult to retain the basic concept. In the
same vein, Dinah (2013) submitted that, unavailability of text books,
laboratory apparatus and other learning resources contribute significantly to
the poor performance of students in Chemistry examinations. Dinah added that,
students with positive attitude towards the subject register better performance
than those who had a negative attitude. Those with positive attitude develop interest
to work hard and this is reflected in the good marks scored in the examination.
Academic achievement of students have also
been correlated with student’s gender. Gender refers to the cultural constructs
and social positions which members of the society attach to being male and
female. Kanno (2018) referred to gender as an analytic concept that describes
sociological roles, cultural responsibilities and expectations of men and women
in a given society or cultural setting. Ezeh (2013) explained that gender
describes the personality traits, attitudes, behaviours, values, relative
power, influence, roles and expectation (femininity and masculinity) that
society ascribes to the two sexes on a differential basis. Singh (2010) opined
that gender refers to a socio-cultural construct that connotes the
differentiated roles and responsibilities of men and women in a particular
society. This definition implies that gender determines the role, which one
plays in relation to general political, cultural, social and economic system of
the society. To the
researcher, gender is a cultural construct developed by society to
differentiate between the roles, behaviour, mental and emotional attributes of
males and females.
Gender has been identified as a major
factor that affects students’ achievement in science and Chemistry in
particular (Omiko, 2017). Oni (2014) posited that in Nigeria, women are
marginalized while men are given greater opportunities to advance based on
their science background. In the Nigerian setting, this factor has been found
to offer males an unfair advantage over their female counterparts. Alabi (2014)
reported that women are hindered from progressing through discrimination on the
basis of gender, early marriage and child bearing and as a result, they are
deprived sound education, job opportunities and incapacitated and rendered
passive generally in the society. Researchers (Oludipe, 2012; Kola & Taiwo,
2013) in their various studies observed that there is no significant difference
between male and female achievement in Chemistry; on the other hand, Igoegwu
& Okonkwo, as cited in Ezike (2018). Onuekusi & Ogomaka, as cited Idika
(2017) found out that a significant difference did exist between the
achievement and interest of male and female students in favour of the male
students in Chemistry. Ubani (2020)
submitted that school subjects are sex-stereotyped such that subjects like
mathematics, physics and chemistry are masculine while English, home economics,
economics are feminine. Ubani further enthused that even in the
subject-sex-stereotype; some topics that require critical cognitive thinking
favour the male students.
It is therefore the desire of the researcher
due to the reports on cognition and gender as correlates of achievement and
interest to determine the influence of cognitive styles and gender on secondary
school students’ interest and academic achievement in Chemistry. It is
necessary to consider the cognitive styles of students while teaching.
Cognitive style is a term used to describe
the way individuals perceive, think and remember information (Lusweti, Kwena
& Mondoh, 2018). It represents the individual differences in the various
subcomponents of an information-processing model of three main cognitive
processes: perception, memory, and thought. Cognitive style as a concept is a
component of a larger concept termed learning style. Learning style highlights
characteristic cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours displayed by an
individual as he learns. Learning style provides an explanation for how any two
learners who are taught the same concepts would differ in the way they learn as
a result of various stimuli, including: environmental (e.g. noise, temperature
and design); emotional (e.g. motivation and persistence); sociological (e.g.
pairing and grouping); physical (e.g. auditory, visual or kinaesthetic); and
psychological (e.g. global or analytic in approach, impulsive or reflective)
(Lusweti et al., 2018).
Cognitive style is a psychological
concept that emphasizes the fact that learners confront learning tasks with
different unique qualities or attributes which can be physical, social,
intellectual, etc and these qualities play very important roles in their learning.
It is an individual’s most consistent approach to learning and processing of
information. It naturally influences how an individual perceives, receives and
processes information (Zeeb, 2014).
Cognitive styles of an individual have both
internal and external features. Internally, they are structured contents of
thought and experience in one’s mind. Externally, they are outward expressions
of thought in terms of flow of logic, arrangement of symbols (writings,
drawings etc.), use of language and relations between these facets.
Consequently, cognitive styles influence decisions and choices made by both the
learner and the teacher during teaching and learning.
Evans (2010) harped that cognitive style of
the student impacts on the various phases of preparation for learning, even
before learning begins. The aspects impacted include: organisation of content,
choice of resources, choice of tasks, as well as planning for how feedback will
be given. Evans further articulated that during the learning process itself,
cognitive style determines how the lesson is structured, pace of the lesson
delivery, interaction, flexibility of the learner and the teacher, as well as
how marking and follow-up is done. The differences in the ways the learner and
the teacher perceive, think and remember information is thus, the basis for
differential performance in a classroom. Some learners therefore understand the
content better as a direct result of the manner in which the teacher presents
the content. When a mismatch occurs between learners’ cognitive style and the
teaching style of the teacher in a classroom situation, it is unlikely that
learning will take place.
Learning can occur in diverse ways.
Therefore, there are different cognitive style dimensions which include field
divergent/convergent, field dependent/independent, holistic/sequential,
reflective/impulsive, global/analytic cognitive styles. Idika (2017) argued
that all of the cognitive styles are subordinate to, and reflect, a broad super
ordinate stylistic (analytic-holistic) difference. Idika maintained that
cognitive styles could be grouped into two majorly: wholist-analytic and
verbal-imagery. The wholistic-analytic cognitive style concerns whether an
individual tends to process information in wholes or in parts; the
verbal-imagery pertains to whether an individual has a propensity to signify
information while thinking verbally or one does so in mental pictures (Idika,
2017).
The most widely investigated cognitive styles
are field-dependent and field-independent. Field-dependent cognition is the
degree to which an individual is able to distinguish and to separate elements
embedded in complex settings (Adams, 2001). Field-dependent learners process
information overall and rely more on external reference (Hinckley & Alden,
2013). They succeed in situations where structure is provided for them and tend
to solve problems through intuition and trial-and-error approaches whereas
field-independent personalities approach the environment in a highly analytical
manner such as making out figures as discrete from their surroundings. The
mental schemas of this set of people entail multiple accessibility.
A field-independent (FI) cognitive style
learner is described as analytic, competitive, individualistic, task-oriented,
internally referent, intrinsically motivated (self-study), self-structuring,
detail oriented and visually perceptive, prefers individual project work and
has poor social skills; while field-dependent (FD) cognitive learner is
described as global (wholistic), group-oriented, sensitive to social
interactions and criticisms, externally motivated, externally referential, not
visually perceptive, a non-verbal and passive learner who prefers external
information and group projects. It is logical to
state that an understanding of ‘how’ an individual perceives and processes
information in a teaching and learning situation is fundamental to improving
students’ achievement. Hence, while a field-dependent student learns in a whole
and social setting, a field-independent student learns in a confined and
secluded academic environment.
Studies (Ezike, 2018; Kanno, 2018) have found
cognitive styles to have significant effects on students’ achievement in
chemistry. On the contrary, Garton, Spain, Lamberson and Spiers (2010) found a
low positive relationship between cognitive style and students’ achievement.
More so, other researchers have determined the influence of cognitive style and
gender on students’ achievement in other sciences. Ogan (2012) submitted that
field independent students achieve higher in mathematics than field dependent
students. Similarly, Okoye (2016)
documented that gender and cognitive styles have no significant influence on
achievement scores of students in biology. Oludipe (2014) reported that most
students are analytic and a significant difference in physics achievement in
favour of analytic students was found. Cognitive style helps student to know
the situation best for their learning which increases their achievement.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Chemistry is the building block for
everything in man’s daily life, including food, cosmetics, industries,
architecture, art, money, engineering and even sports (Hom, 2015). Chemistry
also enables learners to understand what happens around them; however, students
have continuously performed poorly in the past decade. More so, many reports
have attributed differences in cognitive style of learners as part of the
causes of poor achievement in Chemistry. Many chemistry teachers are unaware of
their thought processes let alone that of the students; as a result, they tend
to ignore learner’s cognitive styles in and outside the classroom. Furthermore,
many Chemistry teachers do not know that some students learn by experimenting,
use of charts and drawings. Some students even learn using song e.g learning
periodic table and activity series.
Students are supposed to achieve high and
show interest in Chemistry. This is because they are taught both theoretical
and practical classes. A new paradigm shift in Chemistry education demands students not only
to comprehend conceptual knowledge in verbal way through memorization, formulas
and terms (Liliasari, 2017), but the teacher must give the students real
experiences of Chemistry in their daily life. The cognitive styles of the
students ought to be known by the teacher. This will help teachers adapt
teaching towards modalities that enhance effective learning and improved
interest. However, this is contrary to what is obtainable in the field. It is
therefore the desire of the researcher to determine the influence of cognitive
styles on secondary school Chemistry students’ interest and academic
achievement in Chemistry. Is the researcher interested to determine the
influence of cognitive styles on secondary school Chemistry students’ interest
and academic achievement in Chemistry?
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to determine the
influence of cognitive styles on secondary school Chemistry students’ academic
achievement and interest in Chemistry.
Specifically, the study sought to determine
the:
1.
Influence
of cognitive styles on Chemistry students’ achievement in Chemistry.
2.
Influence
of cognitive styles on Chemistry students’ interest in Chemistry.
3.
Influence
of gender on Chemistry students’ academic achievement in Chemistry.
4.
Influence
of gender on Chemistry students’ interest in Chemistry.
5.
Joint
influence of gender and cognitive styles on Chemistry students’ academic
achievement in Chemistry.
6.
Joint
influence of gender and cognitive styles on Chemistry students’ interest in
Chemistry.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions guided the
study:
1.
what are
the mean achievement scores of field dependent and field independent students
in Chemistry?
2.
what are
the mean interest response of field dependent and field independent students in
Chemistry?
3.
what are
the mean achievement scores of male and female students in Chemistry based on
cognitive style?
4.
what are
the mean interest scores of male and female students in Chemistry based on
cognitive style?
5.
what are
the mean achievement scores of field dependent and field independent students
in Chemistry based on gender?
6.
what are
the mean interest scores of field dependent and field independent students in Chemistry
based on gender?
1.5 HYPOTHESES
The following null hypotheses are formulated
to guide the study and will be tested at 0.05 level of significance:
H01: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores
of field-dependent and field-independent students in Chemistry.
H02: There is no significant difference between the mean interest scores of
field-dependent and field-independent students in Chemistry.
H03: There
is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female
students in Chemistry based on cognitive style.
H04: There is no significant difference between the mean interest scores of
male and female students in Chemistry based on cognitive style.
H05: There
is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of field
dependent and field independent students in Chemistry based on gender.
H06: There
is no significant difference between the mean interest score of field dependent
and field independent students in Chemistry based on gender.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE
OF THE STUDY
This study has both theoretical and practical
significances. Theoretically, the findings will add to the body of knowledge in
line with the theories of some psychologists like Ausubel, Brunner and Gagne
who are of the view that meaningful learning occurs when there is interaction
between the students’ prior knowledge and the new materials to be learned.
These theories explain how students learn through interactions with materials
in the environment so that the students can use the experience gained in
learning process in another situation. That is to say with the knowledge of
cognitive styles an individual may be able to process the information in well-organized
environment so as to relate it to others.
Practically, the findings of this study will
hopefully be beneficial if results of this study are disseminated efficiently
to students, teachers, curriculum planners, guidance counsellors, researchers
and the general public.
To the students, knowledge of their cognitive
styles will develop their process skills that may lead to expertise in problem
solving. The students will know the best learning and studying environment that
will enhance his comprehension. It will also improve students’ achievement in
Chemistry since classification of students into field-dependent and
field-independent is directed at finding out the appropriate way students learn
and understand learning experiences if applied by the teacher.
A clear understanding of students’ cognitive
style will be important to teachers as it will reveal students’ cognitive
styles in Chemistry class-rooms. It will also make teachers to understand and
adjust their teaching accordingly by considering the child’s cognitive style.
If the students are predominantly field-dependent, the teachers will adopt
strategies that will favour field-dependent students and vice versa. Findings
of this study will also make teachers to shift from teacher-centred method to
student-based which may improve the achievement in Chemistry. This is because
teachers tend to neglect students’ cognitive styles during planning and
delivery of lessons. It is anticipated that there is no variation in the
achievement of students with regards to gender; hence, the result of this study
will further help teachers to pattern learning experiences in a sequence that
create equal opportunities for the male and female students.
It is hoped that the result of this study
will enable the curriculum planners to design a curriculum that allows students
to develop their skills that may lead to expertise in problem solving; create
an environment that will nurture the capabilities of students and develop
learners potential to the fullest. It will also encourage curriculum planners
to focus curriculum studies on depth and understandings rather than on breath
of coverage of syllabuses and scheme of work. It will also help curriculum
planners to restructure course contents to match students’ levels of cognitive
reasoning abilities. If the study reveals that Chemistry students are
predominantly field-dependent students, curriculum planners will plan the
curriculum content to develop from part to whole, or whole to part if the
Chemistry students are predominantly field-independent.
To guidance counsellors, the findings of this
study will help to categorize students into cognitive styles, for career choice
according to their brain make-up irrespective of their gender. It will also
help them to place students into different streams. This will have both
academic and career advantage to the students, teachers and general populace.
Other researchers will also gain from this
study as it will provide a building block to research other cognitive styles
that have remained silent over time. More so, it will bring to the general public
the state of art of students’ cognitive styles in secondary schools.
1.7 SCOPE OF
THE STUDY
The study was delimited to Chemistry students
in Senior Secondary School 11. The Chemistry students’ achievement will be
based on SS 11 inorganic Chemistry as specified by West African Senior School Certificate
Examination (WASSCE) and Nation Examination Council (NECO) syllabuses.
Similarly, the study was limited to cognitive
styles as classified by Witkin 1953 (field-dependent and field-independent) of
students in six public coeducational schools in Ohafia and Umuahia educational
zones in Abia state. Coeducational schools were used because of the gender
variable in the study.
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