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EFFECT OF AQUEOUS LEAF EXTRACT OF MORINGA OLEIFERA (LAM) ON THE GERMINATION AND SEEDLINGN GROWTH OF GROUNDNUT (ARACHIS HYPOGEA L.) AND COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULATA L.)

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No of Pages: 59

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ABSTRACT

The effect of the aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on the germination and seedling growth of groundnut and cowpea was investigated. Five treatment levels having different concentration of extracts (undiluted, 1:1, 1:2.5, 1.50) and control were used. Both laboratory and field (pot) experiment were conducted in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. The control treatment was only distilled water. The result showed that the rate of germination of groundnut decreased with the increase in aqueous extract concentration. The extract stimulated the growth of groundnut at all treatment levels but has no significant effect on its dry weight. The study revealed that aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera inhibited the germination of cowpea and as the concentration of extract increases, it decreases the height and dry weight of the seedlings. This study therefore suggests that allelochemicals released from the leaf part of Moringa oleifera inhibited the germination of groundnut and cowpea while it stimulated the height of groundnut but has no significant effect on its dry weight. It was also observed that the aqueous leaf extract of M. oleifera inhibited the height and dry weight of cowpea. This result therefore suggests that allelochemicals may contribute to the allelopathic effect caused by moringa leaves.






TABLE OF CONTENT

 

Title                                                                                                                    i

Declaration                                                                                                         ii

Certification                                                                                                       iii

Dedication                                                                                                          iv                                                                                                          

Acknowledgement                                                                                              v                                                                                                          

Table of Content                                                                                                vi

List of Tables                                                                                                     ix 

List of Plates                                                                                                       x                                                                                          Abstract                                                                                                              xi                                                                                                

CHAPTER ONE                                                                                                    

1.1        Introduction                                                                                     1                                                                                  

1.2          Botany of Plants                                                                                                 8                                                                                                           

1.3          Justification                                                                                                        10

 

1.4          Aim and Objectives                                                                                            10                                                                           

CHAPTER TWO

2.0         Literature review                                                                                                      11                                                                            

2.1         Inhibition Role of Aqueous Plant Extract on the Germination and Seedling

        Growth of Plant                                                                                                  12                                                                                                               

2.2          Stimulatory Role of Aqueous Plant Extract on the Germination and Seedling  

              Growth of    Plants.                                                                                                  16                                                                            

 

 

CHAPTER THREE           

3.0         Materials and Methods                                                                                             20                                                                                        

3.1         Plant Materials                                                                                                         20                                                                           

3.2        Preparations of Aqueous Extracts                                                                            20                                                     

3.3        Seed Germination Test (%)                                                                                       21                                       

3.4        Seedling Growth Test                                                                                                22              

3.4.1     Plant Height (cm)                                                                                                                                          22

3.4.2     Dry Weight (G)                                                                                                                                              22

3.5        Experimental Design and Statistical Procedure                                                                                            22                                                                                                               

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1        Result                                                                                                                    23                                                   

4.1.1.   Height Growth (cm)                                                                                                                                       23

4.1.2.   Seed Germination (%)                                                                                                                   25

 

CHAPTER FIVE                                                                                                                         

5.1     Discussion                                                                                                                                                                                 28       

5.1.1   Effect of the Aqueous Leaf Extract of Moringa Oleifera on the Germination

          Of Groundnut and Cowpea Seed                                                                                                                                              28

5.1.2   Effect of Aqueous Leaf Extract of Moringa Oleifera on the Seedling Growth of

           Groundnut (Arachis Hypogea) and Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata).                                                                         29

5.2      Conclusion                                                                                                                                                       30

5.3      Recommendation                                                                                                                                             31

           References

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1: Effect of aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on the seedling height and dry

weight of groundnut (Arachis hypogea)              23                                                                                                                           

Table 2: Effect of aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on the seedling height and dry

weight of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)                                                                                                                         24 

Table 3: Effect of aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on the percentage

germination of groundnut and cowpea.                                                                                                                         25

 

 

 

 

LIST OF PLATES

Plate1: Groundnut seeds growing in the petri dish                                            26

Plate 2: Cowpea seeds growing in the petri dish                                               26

Plate 3: Groundnut seedlings growing in pots in the screen house           27

Plate 4: Cowpea seedlings growing in pots in the screen                                  27

 

         

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.1        INTRODUCTION
Plants are reservoir of different types of natural occurring bio-organic compounds having a wide range of biological activities. Different parts of plants and their extracts have been used for various purposes since long time ago due to their chemical properties, availability, and simple use without side effects (Asadujjaman et al., 2004).  All these compounds usually are called secondary plant products or waste products of the main metabolic pathways in plants (Turk et al., 2003; Yokotani et al., 2003; Iqbal et al., 2006).

Certain plant extracts are found to have cytotoxic effects and occurs as a result of a single chemical produced by the organism or plant which is harmful to another but beneficial to a third organism or plant (Whittaker and Fenny, 1971; Rice, 1979; Sai and Rizvi, 1992). Allelopathy is one of the most controversial of ecological interactions (Williamson, 1990).

Bioherbicides represent solution to heavy use of synthetic herbicides which causes serious threats to the environment, consumers and increases costs of crop production (Asghari and Tewari, 2007). Moreover, continuous use of herbicides for weeds control causes herbicide resistant (Naseem et al., 2009). Many authors report employ plants extracts for controlling weeds with variable success (Hussain et al., 2007; Iqbal et al., 2009; Naseem et al., 2009).

Apart weeds, all plant parts of the weed including leaf, stem, root, and fruit depending upon plant species have allelopathic potential (Alam and Islam, 2002; Tinnin and Muller, 2006).

These plants have the ability to directly or indirectly stimulate or inhibit the germination, growth, flowering and fruiting of other plants by releasing chemical compounds known as allelochemicals into the environment (Rice et al., 2003). The production of the allelochemicals is widely influenced by genetics as well as environmental factors at different growth stages (Yu et al., 2003). This phenomenon is common for many plant species and can be observed at any level of biological organization (Gawronska, 2003; Chon et al., 2003; Gholami et al., 2011; Al-Rabiah, 2012).

Allelopathy phenomenon has been long observed in natural ecosystem in the pre-historic time (Willis, 2004) and before agriculture. Allelopathy was detected in the agro ecosystem through observations on what was termed as a “soil sickness” or from the harmful effect of certain plant species on others (mainly crops), and thus was exclusively related to negative chemical interactions among plant species. For over 2,000 years, allelopathy has been reported in the literature with respect to plant interference (Westa and Duke 2003) and the concepts related to allelopathy may go back to 600 B.C. (Willis, 1999) and innate plant and was first reported more than 2000 years ago (Formgaard, 2006). Also, early observations of weed and crop allelopathy were made by none other than Theophrastus, "the father of botany", who in 300 B.C. wrote in his botanical works about how chickpea "exhausted" the soil and destroyed weeds. Cato the Elder (234–140 B.C.), the famous Roman politician and writer, was a farmer in his youth. In his book, he wrote about how chick pea and barley "scorch up" corn land. He also mentioned that walnut trees were toxic to other plants (Zeng et al., 2008).

Although this form of plant–plant interference had been known for quite some time, it was only recently (1937) that the Austrian plant physiologist, Hans Molisch, gave it a formal name, allelopathy (Molischs, 1937) and as a consequence, he is currently recognized as the father of allelopathy and understood by certain researchers that referred to both harmful and beneficial chemical interactions between plants in nature, although the lateral translation of the Greek term root words “Allelo” means mutual and “pathy” means suffering and by this, allelopathy should refer to negative chemical effects. Allelochemicals involved were best defined by Whittaker and Feeny (Whittaker, 1971) as chemicals by which organisms of one species affect the growth, health, behavior or population biology of organisms of another species (excluding substances used only as food by the second species). This definition, however, was revised later by (Rice, 1974) who defined it as any direct or indirect harmful interaction between plants (including microorganisms) through chemicals released into the environment after which one of the species is harmed. In 1994, the International Allelopathy Society (IAS) has concluded that allelopathy term should include both stimulatory and inhibitory chemical effects after allelochemicals received in the environment in either modified forms or not.

 Allelopathy particularly of crops, if properly understood, coped and applied can play a significant role (Chou, 1999). It is intensely recognized that the natural plant products being decomposable are environmentally safe and can be reliant on to improve the crop production in a sustainable allelopathic interaction in development and  growth (El-Khatib et al; 2004). Example includes: protein, hormone and chlorophyll synthesis, cell division, cell wall structure, membrane permeability and function and active transmission of especially enzymes, anther and spore germination, organelle synthesis, photosynthesis, respiration, leg-hemoglobin biosynthesis, activity of nitrogen fixation bacteria and mycorhizal fungi, crop water uptake rate are liable to disturbances by allelochemicals (De Neergard et al., 2000).

Allelopathy is therefore an interference mechanism in which live or dead plant materials release chemical substances, which inhibit or stimulate the associated plant growth (Haper, 1998; May and Ash 1990). Once these allelochemicals get dissolved in the soil they may come into contact with other element of different physical, chemical, biological and physiochemical properties which may influence activity of allelochemicals and therefore either amplify or reduce their impact on recipient plants (Inderjit, 1996).

Allelochemicals are believed to be a joint action of several secondary metabolites including phenolic compounds (Dalton, 1999), flavonoids (Berhow and Voughn, 1999), juglone (quinone) (Jose and Gillespie, 1998), terpenoids (Langenheim, 1994). Many researchers have found that the inhibitory substances involved in allelopathy are terpenoids and phenolic (Alexa et al., 2004; Chaves and Escudero, 2006; Khanh, et al., 2007). Phenolics are broad variety of compounds with a wide array of allelechemical activities and most important in allelopathy. Phenolic compounds are water soluble and leach from leaves, stem and roots into the soil solution (Katase, 1993; Zhu and mallik, 1994).

The extent of the allelopathic effects resulting from allelochemicals concentration in soil may be affected by other factors such as soil pH, organic matter content, nutrient and moisture content and microorganisms (Blum 1995).

Bhadoria (2011) produced an extended list of readily visible effects of allelochemicals on the growth and development of other plants. These effects include inhibition or retardation of germination rate; darkening and swollen of seeds; reduction of root and shoot length; swelling or necrosis of root tips; curling of the root axis; discoloration, lack of root hairs; increased number of seminal roots; reduced dry weight accumulation; and lowered reproductive capacity.  Examples of plant species that exhibit allelopathy include many trees (sugar maple, eucalyptus, and oak), shrubs, (sumac, rhododendron, and elderberry), agricultural crops (tobacco and rice), and various grasses and ferns (Brown, 2006).  Each releases its own type of allelochemicals. In contrast to herbicides, allelochemicals are generally weak phytotoxins that exert their effects at low, but constant or increasing concentrations over long periods.

Allelopathy can affect all ecological factors, e.g. growth, plant canopy succession, survival, extension and crop production (Fergusen et al., 2003).

Allelopathic plants also interfere with nearby plants by dispersing chemicals into the soil that may inhibit neighboring plant growth, nutrient uptake or germination (Abhilasha et al., 2008) typical allelopathic inhibitory effects result from the action of groups of allelochemicals that collectively interfere in various physiological processes altering the growth patterns of plants (Kil & Shim, 2006). That action of allelochemicals can affect the respiration, photosynthesis, enzyme activity, water relations, stomatal opening, hormone levels, mineral availability, cell division and elongation, structure and permeability of cell membranes and walls (Chou, 1999; Reigose et al., 1999), through these actions, allelopathic substances may play a role in shaping plant community structure in semi-arid and arid lands (Jefferson and Pennacchio, 2003).

The allelopathic effects are selective, depending upon the concentrations and residue type, either inhibitory or stimulatory to the growth of companion or subsequent crops or weeds (Mushtaq et al., 2003; Cheema et al., 2004; Javaid et al., 2007). Many scientists related to the field of allelopathy are continuously working on it to explore it more and more (Macias, 2002).

In agricultural practice, allelopathy is exploited for weed control (Kohli et al., 1998). These chemicals products mainly affect plants at seed emergence and seedling levels (Alam and Islam, 2002; Hussain et al., 2007). Root exudation, leaching by dews and rains and volatilization or decaying plant tissue from allelopathic plant results in the release of compounds into the environment which could either affect positively or negatively the growth of other species. (Stamp and Nancy, 2003).  In volatilization, the toxic chemicals are released in the form of a gas from the leaves and then are absorbed by another plant, causing it to die. In leaching, the chemicals that are stored in the plant’s leaves seep into the soil, either by the littering and decomposition of the leaves, or via runoff rain, fog, or dew that comes into contact with the leaves. In exudation, the chemicals are released into the soil through the plant’s roots. It has been documented that allelopathy may play an important role on plant-plant interference by those chemical compounds (Inderjit and Dakshini, 1992). A number of weed and crop species have been reported to possess allelopathic effect on the growth of other plant species (Rice, 1984). Chemicals with inducing and inhibiting activity are present in many plants and in many organs, including leaves, flowers, fruits and buds. (Inderjit, 1996; Ashrafi et al., 2007). Plant species that are particularly aggressive in their interactions with other species may be allelopathic. Allelopathy has been invoked frequently to explain the success of invasive species. For example, spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe L., formerly Centaurea maculosa L.) often eliminates most native plant species where it invades (DiTomaso, 2000). Allelopathy has been implicated as a component of its interference (Ridenour and Callaway 2001), although the identity of the allelochemical(s) involved remains unclear (Duke et al., 2009). The ‘‘novel weapons hypothesis’’ suggests that invasive plant species are more likely to be allelopathic to native vegetation because native vegetation has not evolved resistance to unique allelochemicals produced by the invader that are not found in the flora of the invaded area (Inderjit et al., 2006).

Sparse or no vegetation patterning around a particular species can indicate that it is allelopathic. An example of this is the long-observed difficulty in growing most plant species around black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) which led to the discovery of the allelochemical juglone (Davis, 1928). The discovery of the phytotoxic effects of the phytochemical triketones was apparently due to the observation of vegetation patterning around the red bottlebrush plant (Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Skeels) (Knudsen et al. 2000).

However, other factors, such as competition for water in a dry environment, can be involved in vegetation patterning around species that are highly competitive for water. Mineral depletion by a species might also be detrimental to other species that are in close proximity.

Poor growth of a crop after other species or the same species has grown on that field is often attributed to buildup of allelochemicals in the soil. This occurs, but is sometimes hard to prove, as there may also be an accumulation of plant pathogens in the soil, soil nutrient depletion, or other effects on the soil unrelated to allelochemicals, especially if the same crop is grown year after year. Knowledge that a plant species produces one or more potent cytotoxins can be a clue obtained from the phytochemical literature that the species might produce an allelochemical. For example, the fact that all species of Sorghum so far tested produce sorgoleone, a phytotoxic compound implicated in allelopathy of Sorghum spp. (Dayan et al., 2010), would suggest that any species of Sorghum might be allelopathic because of sorgoleone production.

Allelopathy plays an important role in agricultural ecosystems and in a large scale, in the plant covers among the crop-crop, crop-weed and tree-crop covers. It also plays an important role in weed and weed interaction (Wilson and Rice, 1996), weed-crop interaction (Cotton and Einhelig, 1999). These interactions are detrimental and occasionally, are useful and gave attention to allelopathy in natural and agricultural ecosystems.

 Finally, competition can influence allelopathy and vice versa, often making separation of the two processes can be extremely challenging. Thus, an absolute proof of the involvement of a particular compound in allelopathy is very difficult in cases of weak phytotoxins.

A potential complication is that the plant making the putative allelochemical (the donor plant) may only make sufficient amounts of allelochemicals for an allelopathic effect when in the presence of a targeted plant species (receiving plants). This is similar to the case of induction of phytoalexin production in the presence of plant pathogens. Few studies have looked for enhanced production of putative allelochemicals by competing plant species or extracts from such species.

 Allelopathic potentiality under field conditions can be utilized in different ways. For example, surface mulch (Cheema and Khaliq, 2000), incorporation into the soil (Sati et al., 2004), aqueous extracts (Iqbal and Cheema, 2007a), rotation (Narwal, 2000), smothering (Singh et al., 2003) or mix cropping/intercropping (Iqbal and Cheema, 2007b).  Today, allelopathy is recognized as appropriate potential technology to control weeds using chemicals released from decomposed plant parts of various species (Naseem et al., 2009).

 

1.2    BOTANY OF PLANT

 

 Genus Moringa is the only genus in family Moringaceae and comprises 13 species from Africa, Madagascar, Western Asia and the Indian subcontinent (Verdcourt, 1985). The tree is large and tall (up to 40m) with a rounded canopy or foliage with leathery leaves and big fleshy edible drupes as fruit (Neon, 1984). Moringa is fast-growing, drought resistance tree, native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas in northern India, and widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas where its young seed pods and leaves are used as vegetables. It has been reported to provide human, livestock and crop nutritional benefits (Fuglie, 2001). The tree loses its leaves from December to January, though during droughts it may also lose its leaves at other times of the year (HDRA, 2002). It can also be used for water purification and hand washing, and is sometimes used in herbal medicine. (Leone et al., 2015).

 Moringa oleifera has been reported to serve immense benefits as food, Vitamins and in folk medicine. M. oleifera contains a complete food as it contains all the essential Amino acids required for healthy living (Vanisha et al., 2003). It possesses all the vitamins needed to keep the body healthy (Subadra and Vanisha, 2003). Leaf extracts can be used against bacterial or fungal skin complaints (Vanisha et al., 2003). Flower juice of M. olifera can also be used to improve the quality and flow of mother’s milk when breast feeding (Fahey, 2005). Moringa oleifera tagged the “tree of life” is a miraculous plant that is nutritious and beneficial to human health. The ancient traditional medicine of India called “Ayurveda” says the leaves of the Moringa prevent 300 diseases (Alford, 2010). Modern science is confirming that these leaves could help prevent untold suffering and death caused by malnutrition and related diseases (Alford, 2010). Nearly, all parts of moringa are edible and can be used as super food, oil fiber, medicine or purification of water. It is one of the world’s most useful plants and nutritious crops. (Asian vegetable research and development center, 2003).

 In addition to the numerous reported uses of M. oleifera, its allelopathic effects had been studied and reported (Fuglie, 2000; Phiri and Mbewe, 2009; Phiri, 2010).

Arachis hypogea (groundnut or peanut) is an annual herbaceous leguminous plant, belonging to the botanical family of Fabaceae like other legumes, groundnut harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root noodles (Rolloff et al., 2009). Like other legumes, their leaves are nyctinastic, that is, they have “sleep” movements, closing at night. The specific name hypogea mean “under the earth”, because peanut pods develop underground, a feature known as geocarpy. It is a crop of global importance and widely grown in the tropics and subtropics being important to both smallholder and large commercial producers. It is classified as both a grain legume and because of its high oil content an oil crop.

Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) is one of the most widely adapted, versatile and nutritious of all the cultivated grain legume, they are mainly grown in warm climates since they require warm soil temperatures for good establishment (Kellher,1994)

Cowpea is a native of Africa, with West Africa (Nigeria) being a major center of diversity (Ng and Padulosi, 1994). It is one of several species of the widely cultivated genus Vigna four subspecies are recognized of which three are cultivated and they includes: Vigna textilis, Vigna pubescens and Vigna sinensis. It also has the useful ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through its root noodles.

 

1.3    JUSTIFICATION

This research work is aimed at investigating the allelopathic effect of aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on the germination and seedling growth of Arachis hypogea (groundnut) and Vigna unguiculata (cowpea). This is as a result of the need to search and develop alternative sources of plant nutrient by promoting plant extracts as possible supplement or substitute to inorganic fertilizer.

 

1.4   AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This research is aimed at determining the effects of aqueous leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on:

·       The germination of groundnut (Arachis hypogea) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata).

·       Seedling growth of groundnut (Arachis hypogea) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata).

 

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