ABSTRACT
Soil and water, knife, wall, hand table swab samples were collected from Ubakala Abattoir situated in Umuahia, Abia State. The water samples collected for this purpose were tap water and wastewater from different sites of abattoir and the gutter where the workers dispose the waste water. Soil samples were collected from the sites where they dump the solid waste. The bacteria isolated from the collected samples were Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Escherichia coli, Shigella., Staphylococcus aureus., Salmonella sp. and Klebsiella sp. The percentage occurrence showed that Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella showed highest prevalence 3(80%) respectively followed by Shigella 6 (60%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3 (30%), Klebsiella 3 (30%) while Bacillus 2(20%) showed the least the occurrence. Susceptibility test of some of the isolates revealed that most of the isolates are resistant to almost all the antibiotics tested but Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus were more sensitive to the tested antimicrobial drugs.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
Lists of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER
ONE
1.0 Introduction
1
1.1
Aims and Objectives 6
1.2
Objectives 6
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
Literature Review 7
2.1
Pathogenic Organisms Associated with
Slaughter House 16
2.1.1 Escherichia
coli 17
2.1.2 Salmonella 18
2.2
Transmission of Pathogens from Abattoir Waste 19
2.2.1 Transmission by birds 19
2.2.2 The
Marabou stork 20
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
Materials and Methods 23
3.1 Collection
of Samples 23
3.2 Media Used 23
3.3
Sterilization 23
3.4 Microbiological
Analysis 23
3.5 Identification
and Characterization of Isolates 24
3.6
Gram
Staining 24
3.7 Biochemical
Cultural Characteristics 24
3.7.1 Catalase test 24
3.7.2 Coagulase
test 25
3.7.3 Citrate
test 25
3.7.4 Motility
test 25
3.7.5 Indole
test 25
3.7.6 Oxidase
test 26
3.7.7 Sugar fermentation 26
3.8
Antimicrobial Sensitivity Testing 27
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
Results 28
CHAPTER
FIVE
5.0
Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation 32
5.1 Discussion 32
5.2 Conclusion
34
5.3
Recommendation 35
References 36
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
1:
Biochemical
characterization of isolated microorganisms
from
slaughter house 29
2:
Occurrence of bacteria
isolates from slaughter house 30
3: Antimicrobial
susceptibility of isolated microorganisms
form
slaughter house 31
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
1: Unhygienic slaughter process
at the slaughter slab
of the
abattoir at Ubakala. 16
2: A
marabou stork nesting 21
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Antibiotic
resistance means that bacteria can resist the effect of one or more antibiotics
(ECDC, 2013). Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics naturally but bacteria
can also acquire resistance (ECDC, 2013). Infections caused by bacteria that
are resistant to antibiotics can lead to failure of conventional treatment,
longer treatments and death. Antibiotic resistance also leads to higher medical
costs and endangers the success of certain treatments (WHO 2013).
It
is well known that animals can harbor antibiotic resistant and zoonotic
pathogens (By water
et al.
2004; de Jong et al., 2012). Multiple
drug resistance have been suggested to be defined as when a bacteria has
acquired resistance to one or more antibiotics in at least three antimicrobial
categories (Magiorakos et al., 2012).
Pathogens that are resistant to antibiotics can be transmitted from animals to
humans and vice versa (ECDC2013).
Antibiotic
resistant bacteria that are non-pathogenic and part of the normal intestinal flora
have been shown to be able to transfer resistance genes to pathogenic bacteria
such as Salmonella and EHEC O157:H7 (Blake et al. 2003). Resistant bacteria present in animals can also
transfer resistance genes to bacteria that are part of the human normal
intestinal flora if they are transferred to humans (van den Bogaard and
Stobberingh 2000). There are several studies that have established the presence
of antibiotic resistant bacteria in abattoir waste (Abiade-Paul, Kene and Chah 2005; Nwanta, Onunkwo and Ezenduka 2010;
Atieno, Owuor and Omwoyo 2013) and among these bacteria multidrug resistant Salmonella
( Nwanta, Onunkwo and Ezenduka 2010) and EHEC 0157:H7 (Olatoye,
Amosun and Ogundipe, 2012) have been found. As well Escherichia coli resistant
to several antibiotics have previously been found, in faeces from animals taken
for slaughter at abattoirs in Kampala (Byarugaba et al., 2011).Resistant Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp.
have previously been isolated from wild birds and have been suggested as a
danger to human health if spread to humans via faecal contaminated water
(Radhouani et al. ,2012). In a study
by Chang et al. (2010) that investigated the presence of antibiotics in sewage
samples antibiotics were found in the effluents from an abattoir.
Abattoir
effluents are waste water derived from animals laughtering activities in
abattoirs, consisting mainly of intestinal contents, blood and water. Abattoir
effluent like other types of discharged sewage, eventually enter natural bodies
of water like ground water, streams, rivers, lakes and oceans as a result of
natural drainage pattern and sequence (Madigan et al.,1997; Pelczar et
al.,2002). These water bodies are used by human beings for drinking,
household, industrial, agricultural (irrigation), swimming and other
recreational purposes.
Drinking
water and recreational water have been implicated in the transmission of
pathogens, and it was opined that the source of contamination could be either sewage
or infected animals (Muniesa et al., 2006; Sehgalet al., 2008).
A
number of bacteria species, including coliforms and Listeria can be
present in the intestines of some humans and animals, including birds without
causing infection (Ramaswany et al., 2007).
The
Genus Listeria consists, mainly, of 8 species, namely Listeria
monocytogenes, Listeria ivanovii, Listeriaseeligeri, Listeria
innocua, Listeria welshimeri, Listeriagrayi, Listeria marthii and
Listeria rocourtiae (Liu 2006;den Bakker et al., 2010). Out of
these eight species of Listeria, only Listeria monocytogenes (pathogenic
to human and animals) and Listeria ivanovii (pathogenic to animals) are
regarded as pathogens, while all other species are generally regarded as
non-pathogenic (Lawand Donachie 1997; Liu 2006). However, there have been, of
recent, reported cases of human infection with Listeria ivanovii, Listeria
seeligeri, Listeria innocua and
Listeria
welshimeri (Rocout et al., 1986; Andre
andGenicot 1987; Allenberger 2002; Perrin et al., 2003).
Listeria
monocytogenes is an intracellular, food borneand
zoonotic pathogen. It is the aetiological agent of thedisease, listeriosis
(Portnoy et al., 2002; Chen et al.,2007; Rebagliati et al., 2009).
Listeriosis is a regularly reported disease in Europe and North America but
only a
few
sporadic cases have been reported in Africa and other developing countries
where the food industry is notvery developed (Ennaji et al., 2008).
There
are invasive and non invasive forms of infection with Listeria monocytogenes
(Françiosa et al.,2001; Vazquez-Boland et al., 2001). The non
invasive form which is characterized by gastroenteritis in theabsence of more
serious symptoms like septicemia, meningitis, abortion etc, following food
borne infection with Listeria monocytogenes, has only recently been definitively
determined by Dalton et al., 1997 (Dalton etal., 1997; Ramaswany et
al. 2000, Françoisa et al.,2001). It has been suggested that the
occurrence of noninvasive listeriosis may be underestimated as Listeria monocytogenes
is not among the pathogens routinely investigated in outbreaks of gastro -
intestinal disease (Franciosa et al., 2001; Ramaswany et al.,
2007).
The
disposal of abattoir effluent which feeds natural bodies of water and the
monitoring of the bacterial status of such effluent are of public health
significance (Madiganet al., 1997; Black et al., 1998),
especially in developing countries like Nigeria, where abattoir effluent are discharged
untreated. Abattoir effluent, like other types of industrial sewage are
supposed to undergo various stages of treatment to eliminate or remove
bacterial content before being discharged into drainage to enter the natural
bodies of water (Hug et al., 2005; Nestar et al., 1998).
Furthermore,
the presence of various types of bacteria species in abattoir effluent makes it
a conducive environment for the transmission of antimicrobial resistance
amongst them (Mach and Grimes, 1982).
Antimicrobial
resistance has generally undergone near exponential increase in the past
decades (Safdar and Armstrong, 2003). Prophylactic use of common broad spectrum
antibiotics as well as empirical preemptive therapy in high risk settings, or
indiscriminate usage, particularly in developing nations, has further accentuated
this trend, especially in patients with underlying malignancy (Safdar and
Armstrong, 2003;Bondarinzadeh, 2007).Listeria organisms are generally known to
be antibiotic susceptible in developed nations (Boisivon et al., 1990).
The
situation in Nigeria and other African countries is not well known, but
bacteria generally, are known to be resistant to commonly used antibiotics like
ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, septrin etc (Akano et al.,2009).
Moreover,
studies have shown that plasmids carrying antibiotic resistant genes can
successfully transfer genetic codes from Enterococcus faecalis to Listeria
monocytogenes (Poyart –Salmeron et al., 1990). This observation has
raised serious concerns regarding possible emergence of antibiotic resistance
and the choice of optimal initial therapy for severe listeric infection especially
in compromised individuals (Safdar and Armstrong, 2003).
Abattoir
effluents refer to water ladened with waste materials generated from an
abattoir. Such waste materials are highly nitrogenous, biodegradable with high
concentration of suspended and
dissolved
solids, fat scraps, blood, gut contents, detergents, hair and hide scraps
(Alonge, 2001). These dissolved and suspended substances as well as microbes present,
account for the colour, smell, and other physicochemical and microbiological
properties of the abattoir effluents (Coker, 2001).Abattoir effluents whether
it reaches the surface water through a point source or non-point source reduce
oxygen in water and endanger aquatic life (Cecil, 2005). Leachates of these
effluents which have large number of microbes dangerously do pollute shallow
and hand dug wells (Meadows, 1995). The organic nutrients added to groundwater
produce excessive microbial growth causing unpleasant taste and odours of water
from this source (Liu,2002; Odeyemi et al, 2014).
Globally
efforts have been directed towards nipping in the bud the problems of waste and
environmental pollution. In many parts of the world the issue of environmental health
is now being taken with utmost importance. However, in Nigeria, like in many
other developing countries, discharge of untreated wastes into the environment
is still a problem. Compromised water quality and poor sanitary conditions of
abattoirs in the livestock sector have added in no small way to the problem (Adeyemo
et al, 2002).
Realizing
the significance of abattoir wastes on the environment and public health, this
work seeks to investigate the effects of run offs and percolates of abattoir
into surface and groundwater to give more in sightin to the implications of
abattoir effluents on the environment and public health.
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The
aim of this study is to investigate the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of
microorganisms isolated from slaughterhouse.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
1.
To isolate and identify microorganisms associated with slaughterhouse waste
water.
2.
To isolate and identify pathogenic microorganisms associated with
slaughterhouse butchering points at Ubakala, Umuahia South Abia State.
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