Abstract
The research
on Mucuna pruriens was to know its ameliorative efficacy on the kidney markers
of malaria infected mice. The antimalaria effect was evaluated against
Plasmodium berghei stain of 25 mice.The twenty five (25) adult albino mice of
both sexes which weighed 20g-36g were grouped into five(1-5) of five mice per
group which was used to carry out the experiment. Group 1 which served as
negative control received 10ml/kg of 5% tween 80,group 2, which is positive or
standard control received 0.95mg/kg of standard drug (ACT), groups 3, 4 and 5
received 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 400mg/kg body weight of the extract of Mucuna
pruriens respectively. Malaria was induced using Plasmodium berghei in which
the malaria infected mice were examined for parasitemia on day 4 and 8 of the
treatment. The creatinine, bilirubin and serum urea levels were determined
using Randox and Teco kits .The curative percentage of the animals in groups (1-5) were recorded. In day 4, The curative percentage
were 0%, 41.43%, 39.34%, 46.1% and 67.93% respectively and day 8 values are as follows 28.13%, 97.19%,
87.70%, 80% and 95.19%. The values for kidney markers in days 4 for Urea were
(44.00
9.79,
36
40
,
35
and 46.67
,
creatinine values (0.62
2.62
4.46
3.13
2.53
)
and bilirubin values (21.9
1.41,
21.4
and
22.43
while the values in day 8 for Urea were (40.00
and 45.00
and creatinine values were (24.26
and
23.93
while that of bilirubin were (24.26
and
23.93
for
groups (1-5) respectively. The research showed that the extract can cure
malaria without affecting the kidney markers and can be added in formulating
antimalaria drugs.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE
PAGE -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- i
CERIFICATION -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii
DEDICATION --------------------------------------------------------iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT-----------------------------------------------iv
TABLE
OF CONTENT--------------------------------------------------v
ABSTRACT
-------------------------------------------------------------x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1
Background of the study -- -- -- -- -- -- 1
1.2
Statement of the problem -- -- -- -- -- -- 5
1.3
Aims/Objectives of the study-- -- -- -- -- -- 6
1.4
Specific Objectives -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 6
1.5
Significance of the study -- -- -- -- ---- -- 6
1.6
Scope of the Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7
1.7
Research Questions----------------------------------------------7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1
General Classification of Mucuna pruriens -- -- -- 9
2.1.1
General Description of Agbala (Mucuna pruriens) -- 10
2.1.2
Nutritional properties -- -- -- -- -- -- 11
2.1.3
Phytochemical properties -- -- -- -- -- -- 15
2.1.4
Current uses of Mucuna pruriens -- -- -- -- 17
2.1.5
Nutraceutical versatility -- -- -- -- -- -- 17
2.1.6
Antioxidant property -- -- -- -- -- -- 18
2.1.7
Antivenin property -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 19
2.1.8
Fertility enhancing property -- -- -- -- -- 20
2.1.9
Growth promoting property -- -- -- -- -- 21
2.1.10
Hypoglycemic property -- -- -- -- -- -- 21
2.1.11Anthelmintic
property -- -- -- -- -- -- 22
2.2
Review on prevalence of malaria in Nigeria -- -- -- 23
2.3
Species of plasmodium -- -- -- -- -- -- 29
2.4
Review of kidney markers -- -- -- -- -- -- 29
2.5
Markers of Kidney function -- -- -- -- -- --
36
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1
Materials-------------------------------------------------------------------37
3.1.1
Samples used -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 37
3.1.2
Equipments/Apparatuses -- -- -- -- -- 37
3.1.3
Reagents used -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 37
3.2 Methods----------------------------------------------------------------------38
3.2.1
Preparation of plant materials for extraction -- -- 38
3.2.2
Determination of LD50 -- -- -- -- -- -- 38
3.2.3
Estimation of antimicrobial activity of Mucuna pruriens 39
3.2.4
Staining Technique -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 40
3.2.5
Urea Estimation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 41
3.2.6
Estimation of Creatinine -- -- -- -- -- -- 42
3.2.7
Bilirubin Estimation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 43
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
RESULTS----------------------------------------------------------44
4.1
Acute toxicity ------------------------------------------------------44
4.2
Antimalaria Activity------------------------------------------------45
4.3
Creatinine------------------------------------------------------------46
4.4
Bilirubin--------------------------------------------------------------48
4.5
Urea--------------------------------------------------------------------50
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1
Discussion-----------------------------------------------------------------52
5.2 Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------56
5.3
Recommendation-----------------------------------------------------57
REFERENCES----------------------------------------------------------------58
APPENDICES--------------------------------------------------------66
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study.
A medical plant can
be described as any plant in which one or more of its organs contains
substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are materials for
the synthesis of useful drugs (WHO, 2011). Medical plants are very ancient and
only true natural medicines have been found useful in several ways. They can be
used directly or in other extracted forms for the management of various
ailments. They can also be used as agents or starting materials in the
synthesis of drugs (Harbone, 2003).
Medical
herbs and plant extracts are now generally considered as effective medicines to
be respected, appreciated and they play a major role in modern pharmacy
(Cunningham, 1993)
The use of herbs is
very common in developing countries, particularly in rural settings. However,
during the last decade, an increase in the use of plant has been observed in
metropolitan areas of development countries (Harnack ,Jeffery and Boutelle,
2001)
Plants are
extensively used to treat malaria caused by different species of plasmodium.
Malaria is the worldwide most important parasitic disease with an incidence of
almost 400-900 millions clinical cases and approximately one to three million
death annually (Sachs and Malaney, 2002).
It is endemic in about 100 developing
countries. Worse still, malaria parasite have developed defenses against many
anti malaria drugs and many insecticide (WHO, 2011). The newly produced
effective anti malaria drugs are expensive, especially for most poor Nigerians
to afford. Chemotherapy with effective anti malaria drugs remain the main
method to control of malaria in the absence of a suitable vaccine treatment
(WHO, 2011). Coupled with the human preference for natural therapies, the
knowledge of traditional medicine to combat malaria and other fevers was widely
diffused among the needed for these
traditional remedies were accessible free at the background or at very cheap
rates and can be self prepared at home. Malaria is a disease caused by
parasitic microbes (plasmodium species) spread by the female anopheles
mosquitoes (Fisher and Bialek, 2002). Plasmodium falciparum resistance to
commonly used anti-malaria drugs is rising rapidly in Nigeria and other parts
of Africa (Collins and Barnwell, 2009). This has resulted in insurgence in
transmission and an increase in adverse outcomes due to therapy failure. In
fact, this loss of effectiveness of chemotherapy constitutes the greatest
threat to the control of malaria. He world Health Organization has estimated
that funding for malaria control alone, including only existing method for
vector control, will need to increase to 3.1billion annually by 2015 (WHO,
2004). Effect of plasmodium falciparum varies from a symptomatic to multi organ
manifestation, which could lead to death of victim (Zaki, et al., 2013).
Malaria has been implicated as one of the factors responsible for renal and
hepatic dysfunction in malaria endemic area countries (Mishra et al., 2013,
Ogbadoyi et al., 2007, Sharma et al., 2004). The malaria parasites usually
affect the kidney, liver and brain (Dzeing-Ella et al., 2005).
The level of severity
of malaria infection can be determined by both renal and hepatic malfunction.
The clinical manifestation of renal involvement is associated with infection by
plasmodium falciparum and plasmodium malariae (Naqvi et al., 2003), and may be
responsible for an immune complex medicated glomerular disease leading to
nephritic syndrome. Other implications range from urinary sediment
abnormalities, mild protienuria and electrolyte changes acute renal failure
with metabolic acidosis (Padhi and Mishra, 2012).
Malaria has been
reported to be one of the factor responsible for acute renal failure among
children in malaria endemic areas (Mockenhaupt, Beeson and Marsh, 2004), and
this adverse effect of malaria parasite on the kidney could lead to an increase
in blood urea, hypernareamia, hyper-Kalaemia, low urine specific gravity, metabolic
acidosis and low ratio of urinary to blood urea (Padhi and Mishra, 2012)
The sudden increase
in the urea level and imbalance in the electrolytes level such as sodium,
potassium, bicarbonate and chloride in malaria infected people could serve as
indicators for kidney dysfunction (Uzuegbu, 2011, Ebele et al., 2010, Jasani,
Hellgren and Rombo, 2012).
Mucuna pruriens is a
tropical legume known as velvet beans, devil beans, Mucuna, Nescafe and buffalo
bean. Other common names includes Yerepe (Yoruba) and Agbala (Igbo) (Uzuegbu,
2011)
The leaves of Mucuna pruriens are also used in
the management of ulcer, cephalgia and general debility. The seeds have been
known to contain large amount of protein and
mineral and with high calorific value, but also with high level of
antinutritive properties such as phenolics, tannins,L-dopa, trypsin inhibitors,
and phytohaemaglutinins. The seed also contain glutathione lecithin, gallic
acid, nicotine, prurenidine and 4-tetra isoquinoline alkaloids (Mishra and
Wagner, 2004) and as such are used as astringent, laxative, antiheminthic,
aphrodisiac in the cotyledon of the seed, was found to increase the brain
mitochondria complex activity and thus has been attributed to the effects as
such has been useful in the management of parkinson’s disease (Jacobsen, 1993).
1.2 Statement
of the Problem.
Even though
pharmacological industries have produced a number of new antimalaria drugs in
the last three decades, resistance to these drugs by microorganisms have
increased. Current work was undertaken to investigate the ameliorative efficacy
of the extract of the leaves of Mucuna pruriens on kidney markers of malaria
infected mice.
1.3
Aims/Objectives of the study.
This includes to get
extract from the leaves of Mucuna pruriens using methanol and subsequently to
test the ameliorative efficacy of the extract on the kidney markers of malaria
infected mice using different doses of the extract.
1.4 Specific
Objective.
1. To get extract from the leaves of Mucuna
pruriens at Ekwulobia Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State.
2. To evaluate the antimicrobial
activity of Mucuna pruriens methanol leaf extract on malaria infected mice.
3. To investigate the effect of the extract on
kidney markers of mice.
1.5 Significance of the study.
This research was
done to assess therapeutic antimalaria agents from Mucuna pruriens. It was
envisaged to lay down the groundwork for enhancing traditional knowledge and
practices through modern approaches of drug development. The study is also
aimed at contributing to scientific knowledge locally, nationally and
internationally in the area of malaria disease.
The result of this
study will determine the antimalaria activity of Mucuna pruriens to plasmodium
species involved in malaria. And if the results are favourable then consumption
of Mucuna pruriens will be advocated, which is safer than consumption of
medical drugs which often have side effect to the individuals taking them, as a
preventive therapy (since it raises the immune system of the individuals
involved).
1.6 Scope of the study.
This includes obtaining the leaf
samples from Ekwulobia Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State, preparing
the samples for extraction and extraction using methanol ,subsequently the
ameliorative efficacy of the extract will be tested on kidney markers of
malaria infected mice using Plasmodium breghei parasite and 25 albino mice.
1.7 Research questions.
1.
How can extract be obtained from the leaf samples of Mucuna pruriens
obtained from Ekwulobia Aguata Local Government Area of Anambra State?
2.
How can the antimalaria activity of Mucuna pruriens methanol leaf
extract on malaria infected mice be evaluated.
3.
How can the effect of the extract on kidney markers of mice be
investigated?
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